Alaska Statewide Mentor Project is Reaching Rural Teachers

Abigail Swisher, Rural Impact Fellow at FAS, served in the Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, with a focus on STEM education. This post was originally published at HomeRoom, the official blog of the U.S. Department of Education.

Spanning 37,000 miles across Alaska, the Northwest Arctic Borough School District has struggled to hire and retain enough new teachers. The eleven villages within the district – many of them above the Arctic Circle – are sparsely populated and remote. The winters are long, and without easy connection to roads, teachers new to the area often feel the isolation of remote village life.Alaska’s Northwest Arctic Borough

Early-career and out-of-state teachers tend to be most heavily concentrated in Alaska’s rural schools, where they face a steep curve in adjusting to a new way of life while learning the ropes of teaching. As Northwest Arctic Borough Superintendent Terri Walker explains, “Our new teachers really have to learn everything: a new culture, sometimes a new language, new teaching skills, a new curriculum, customs and traditions of our kids, and the culture of our schools,”

But Northwest Arctic has found one approach to help their new teachers thrive in the classroom: A mentoring program that pairs new teachers with experienced educators from across Alaska.

The Alaska Statewide Mentor Project (ASMP) connects new teachers often isolated by physical distance with experienced mentor teachers who help them learn the skills to fit their unique cultural context. Mentors and mentees connect virtually each week and in-person several times per year, which usually requires long journeys involving travel by bush plane, boat, dog sled and/or snowmobile.

Mentors help new teachers develop culturally responsive practice, building on Alaska’s statewide standards for culturally responsive teaching. Roughly seventy percent of new teachers in Alaska’s rural and isolated schools come from out of state, so the program focuses on helping teachers learn their students’ cultural context and work to integrate into their community.

Cultural knowledge is crucial for new teachers in Northwest Arctic Borough, whose student population is ninety percent Inupiaq. Superintendent Walker says that the district’s work is deeply centered in preservation of the unique heritage and values of Inupiaq culture; their motto is “Atautchikun Iñuuniałiptigun (Through Our Way of Life Together as One).”

In the 2023-24 school year, ASMP served roughly 140 new teachers across the state. Many schools share the cost of participation for their new teachers with ASMP; in previous years, Northwest Arctic Borough has used federal dollars through the Rural Education Achievement Program (REAP) to fund teachers’ participation. “It’s a very popular program with our new teachers, and one we try to continue even as our district is operating at a ten-million-dollar deficit,” said Superintendent Walker. “We continue to work to support the program because we believe in it.”

And the program is getting results: rigorous evaluation (funded by an ED Education Innovation Research grant) shows that new teachers who participate in the program make larger student learning gains in reading and math, and stay in the classroom longer than new teachers without a mentor.

The Alaska Statewide Mentor Project’s results are heartening against a larger backdrop of challenges in attracting and retaining new teachers in rural and geographically isolated schools across the United States and its territories. With an additional expansion grant from ED’s Education Innovation and Research (EIR) program, the mentoring program is broadening its reach to teachers in the state of Montana, and to expand the existing program within Alaska to all teachers who are new to the state of Alaska, regardless of their years of experience.

Overcoming Historical Barriers in Mid-Tier Agriculture

Introducing A New Podcast Series with an FAS Food Impact Fellow and the Racial Equity in the Food System Working Group

In October 2023, Federation of American Scientists launched a multi-year Food Supply Chain Impact Fellowship that placed 28 food systems professionals dedicated to strengthening mid-tier agriculture value chains across the U.S. Many of these Fellows are currently working to support the Regional Food Business Centers, the Resilient Food Systems Infrastructure Program and advance local and regional food systems research.

I serve as one of the FAS Fellows contributing to local and regional food systems efforts at the national level. During our initial fellowship onboarding, we developed research proposals that could tie directly to or prepare us for our future federal service. I am not new to understanding and addressing the issues that plague regional agricultural value chains and mid-tier agriculture. With much of my previous work in food systems focused on strengthening regional processing (think hops growing and processing for craft brewing operations, or capital access and sourcing for a startup food manufacturing business), I was up for the challenge of researching and discussing food systems transformation and the pathways we might all consider reaching for a more resilient regionally-focused food system.

One of the major questions around food systems transformation and successful models of local and regional food systems success has been right-fitting technical assistance and investment in technical assistance to meet the diverse needs of producers, particularly Black, Hispanic, and Tribal producers. Not all agricultural education is built the same and many of the long-standing methods of engaging with farmers, producing education, investing in technical assistance, and marketing the access to the public, do not meet the needs of farmers long un-prioritized by local, state, and federal resources. 

There is not only personal value to farmers, but also intrinsic value to mid-tier agriculture in ensuring resources are widely available and unbiasedly accessible. Diversifying and centering equity in agricultural technical assistance can improve the resilience and market growth of mid-tier agricultural value chains. The first value factor, according to the Local and Regional Food Systems Playbook (LRFSP), is that systemic injustice can impair people in responding to food system disruptions, and not having a disaster response that is fast, nimble and widespread is in itself disastrous.

A second value factor focuses on generational wealth for agricultural producers. Economists suggest increases in programmatic capital and long-term investment in resources that create wealth generation, like land and business ownership, will more effectively support historically underserved and low-resourced Americans in building agricultural, generational wealth long-term.

Finally, a third value focuses on the critical link between food insecurity and nutritional disease rates. The rates of food insecurity and detrimental health outcomes are all highest in BIPOC communities. Moving towards program funding that begins to reverse historical food insecurity and loss of food sovereignty, which will take years and generations to reverse, will more consistently contribute to advance human health across all people and across our economic and biological lives.

To contribute to forwarding research-based discussions, I took this topic to colleagues with the Racial Equity in the Food Systems Working Group (REFS). REFS is a Community of Practice of extension educators, rural sociologists, economists and other agricultural and food systems professionals, and community stakeholders who connect, learn, and collaborate to facilitate change within our institutions and society to build racial equity within the food system. The result is a 3-part podcast series hosted by Kolia Souza and me with REFS guest experts exploring the value of increasing long-term investment in mid-tier technical assistance for historically underserved producers. Michigan State University Center for Regional Food Systems produced three episodes as an extension of their Reaching for Equity in All Lives (REAL) Talks Series, with two episodes currently available on all podcast platforms. The first two episodes focus on Scaling Up with Trust and Relationships and Systems are People. 

The podcasts are real conversations with experts in the field of agriculture and equity and include Dr Marcus Coleman, Professor of Practice in Economics at Tulane University; Keesa V Johnson, MDes, Food Systems Strategy Design Specialist at Michigan State University; and, Rachel Lindvall, MLIS, Consultant on Sustainable and Indigenous Food Systems. The third episode of Real Talks will launch in August and all eight episodes of the REAL Talks podcast will be available at the link or across Apple and YouTube podcast platforms.

Equitable resources are ones that center historically underserved producers; they focus on longitudinal access, higher funding caps, lowers barriers in application processes, and provides the direct technical assistance to support diverse applications from historically underserved organizations. Equitable resources include debt-financing mechanisms specifically tailored to historically underserved producers and crop insurance that is accessible and affordable. I welcome you to check out all the podcast episodes and review the additional resources in this post along with the body of evidence and knowledge that examines historical inequities in funding and access within our food systems. 

To learn more about the work of the Center for Regional Food Systems at Michigan State University, you can check them out here. You can reach out about this blog post to Maria Graziani, Food Supply Chain Impact Fellow, mgraziani@fas.org

Cover image: Corona Farmers Market in Queens, New York is one of the most dynamic and diverse farmers markets in the city and is steps off the subway and mass transit system for the city | USDA Photo by Preston Keres

Making the Most of OSHA’s Extreme Heat Rule

KEY TAKEAWAYS

This article is informed by extensive research and stakeholder engagement conducted by the Federation of American Scientists, including a comprehensive literature review and interviews with experts in the field. Much of this work informed our recent publication which can be found here. 

The Imperative for Infrastructure Investment

As climate change intensifies, the need for robust heat safety measures for outdoor workers has never been more pressing. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has taken a significant step forward in protecting workers from extreme heat by proposing a new safety standard. The proposed rule aims to protect approximately 36 million workers in indoor and outdoor settings from heat-related illnesses and fatalities. As we move forward, the rule’s success hinges on substantial investments to bridge the gap between policy and practice. It is crucial to examine how the federal government can create the necessary infrastructure to support and maximize the effectiveness of this potentially groundbreaking standard.

The need for these investments is underscored by the significant economic and human costs of heat-related illnesses and fatalities. A study by the Atlantic Council estimates that extreme heat costs the U.S. economy $100 billion annually, with agricultural workers being among the most affected. Proper implementation of safety measures could potentially prevent many of these fatalities and reduce substantial economic losses.

Key Areas for Infrastructure Development to Meet OSHA’s Heat Safety Rules

The outdoor occupational sector, employing tens of millions of workers across diverse landscapes and industries, faces unique challenges in properly implementing heat safety measures. From vast open fields to enclosed processing facilities, the infrastructure needs are as varied as the sector itself. Without targeted investments, the OSHA standard risks becoming an unfunded mandate, unable to fulfill its life-saving potential.

The effective implementation of OSHA’s proposed standard requires a multifaceted approach to infrastructure development. By focusing on these key areas, we can create a robust framework that supports the standard’s goals and protects outdoor workers across diverse settings and conditions. To maximize the impact of the proposed rule, investments must be strategically directed across several key areas. It is important to note that these areas represent a broad overview and are not exhaustive– comprehensive stakeholder engagement is essential to tailor solutions to specific needs across different states, regions, industries, and employers.

Workforce

Developing a resilient and well-prepared workforce is a cornerstone of effective safety measures. Key investments in training, access to facilities, and health monitoring ensure that workers are equipped to handle extreme heat conditions, safeguarding their health and productivity.

  1. Training & Education. Developing multilingual, interactive training modules accessible to all workers is crucial. These programs must include ongoing education to ensure workers are continually updated on best practices for heat safety.
  2. Access to Infrastructure. Installing hydration stations and shaded rest areas is essential to provide necessary relief from extreme heat. These facilities enable workers to stay hydrated and take breaks, significantly reducing the risk of heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
  3. Personal Protective Equipment. Providing cooling vests, lightweight clothing, and sunscreen to protect workers from heat stress is another critical component. PPE must be tailored to the specific needs of workers, offering protection without hindering productivity.
  4. Health Insurance. Ensuring workers have access to adequate health insurance is crucial, particularly for those in rural and underserved areas. This includes addressing the unique challenges faced by workers with complex immigration statuses, who may be hesitant to seek medical care or face barriers in obtaining insurance coverage.
  5. Awareness. Implementing acclimatization programs and regular health screenings can help monitor workers’ health and identify early signs of heat stress. This includes educating workers about recognizing early signs of heat stress in themselves and colleagues, and understanding the importance of gradual adaptation to hot working conditions. 
  6. Migrant Worker Vulnerabilities. Undocumented workers face unique challenges in accessing heat safety protections, such as fear of retaliation for reporting unsafe conditions, which can lead to underreporting of incidents. This vulnerability highlights the need for stronger protections and outreach strategies specifically tailored to this population.

Employer & Industry

Employers and industries play a critical role in implementing heat safety standards. By investing in infrastructure, regulatory compliance, and technological innovations, they can create safer working environments and ensure the sustainability of their operations.

  1. Financial Assistance. Offering grants, subsidies, and tax incentives can support employers in implementing necessary safety measures. Financial support can alleviate the burden on small and medium-sized enterprises, ensuring that all employers can invest in heat safety infrastructure.
  2. Physical Infrastructure. Employers must invest in the necessary infrastructure, including hydration stations, shaded rest areas, and cooling systems. These investments are essential for creating a safe working environment and ensuring compliance with the proposed standards.
  3. Regulatory Compliance Support. Developing clear guidelines and compliance tools can help employers adhere to the new standards. Providing technical assistance and resources for compliance can simplify the process and encourage widespread adoption of safety measures .
  4. Technology & Innovation. Utilizing weather monitoring systems, wearable heat sensors, and mobile health applications can enhance worker safety. These technologies enable real-time tracking of heat exposure and facilitate timely interventions, reducing the risk of heat-related illnesses.
  5. Rural Infrastructure. Many agricultural operations are in rural areas with limited resources and infrastructure. This includes a lack of nearby healthcare facilities, making it difficult to quickly respond to heat-related illnesses in the workplace. Investments in rural infrastructure and targeted support can address these limitations.

Regulatory Agencies

Regulatory agencies are essential in enforcing heat safety standards. Increased resources, staffing, and technical expertise, along with robust data collection and public outreach, are necessary to support compliance and drive continuous improvement in safety measures.

  1. Resources & Staffing. Adequate staffing is essential to enforce the new standards effectively. Increased financial resources would support hiring additional staff, enhance the technological capabilities for monitoring compliance, and ensure that there are adequate resources to investigate and address non-compliance.
  2. Training & Expertise. Ensuring regulatory agencies possess the necessary technical and operational expertise through ongoing training for inspectors and regulatory staff to stay updated on the latest heat safety technologies, practices, and research.
  3. Data Collection & Analysis. Developing incident reporting systems, syndromic surveillance, and integration of data with a centralized health and safety database can inform policy decisions and improve safety measures.
  4. Public Outreach & Education. Implementing awareness campaigns, community engagement initiatives, and distributing educational materials can increase awareness of safety.
  5. Research & Development. Funding for research collaborations with academic institutions and pilot programs to test new heat safety technologies and strategies is vital.
  6. Whistleblower Protections. To ensure the effectiveness of heat safety measures, it’s crucial that all workers, including undocumented workers, can report dangerous conditions without fear of retaliation. Strengthening and enforcing whistleblower protections is essential to create a culture of safety and compliance.

Healthcare

A robust healthcare infrastructure is vital to support the prevention, early detection, and treatment of heat-related illnesses among outdoor workers. Investments in medical facilities, telemedicine, emergency response systems, and healthcare worker training are crucial to providing timely and effective care. 

  1. Access to Healthcare. Strengthening access to healthcare is crucial, especially in rural and underserved areas. This involves expanding medical facilities and ensuring workers have access to qualified healthcare professionals and affordable treatment options tailored to heat-related conditions.
  2. Telemedicine Infrastructure. Developing robust telemedicine platforms enables remote consultations for workers in remote areas. This provides timely healthcare interventions without the need for extensive travel.
  3. Emergency Response Systems. Bolstering emergency response capabilities ensures that medical aid is swiftly available during critical heat-related incidents. This reduces potential health complications and improves outcomes for affected workers.
  4. Healthcare Worker Training. Training healthcare professionals in the specifics of heat-related illnesses prepares them to offer effective treatment and preventative care. This enhances the overall response to heat stress conditions and improves patient outcomes.
  5. Data Sharing & Coordination. Creating data-sharing frameworks between healthcare providers, emergency services, and public health agencies ensures a coordinated response to heat-related health issues. This enhances overall healthcare efficacy and enables better tracking and management of heat-related incidents.

Community & Advocacy Groups

Community and advocacy groups play a pivotal role in bridging the gap between policy and practice. By supporting local networks, grassroots education programs, and worker advocacy efforts, these groups can significantly enhance the effectiveness of heat safety initiatives. Their involvement ensures that programs are culturally appropriate, widely understood, and effectively implemented on the ground.

  1. Worker Education. Implementing wide-reaching education and advocacy programs helps raise awareness about heat risks. These efforts promote community-wide preventive measures and empower workers to protect themselves.
  2. Advocacy. Ensuring direct worker representation in policy discussions and implementation planning is crucial. Their firsthand experiences are invaluable in creating effective, practical safety measures that address real-world challenges.
  3. Local Heat Safety Networks. Supporting the creation of community networks ensures the distribution of heat safety resources. These networks enhance preparedness and response to heat risks at the local level.
  4. Worker Advocacy Support. Providing resources to advocacy groups enables effective representation of workers‘ safety interests. This ensures that policies are worker-centered and address the actual needs of those most affected by heat hazards.
  5. Community Resilience Planning. Collaborating with community groups to develop localized resilience strategies strengthens community preparedness against heat impacts. This approach integrates workplace safety measures with broader community resilience efforts.

The Federal Government’s Role in Facilitating Investments

Successful implementation of OSHA’s heat safety standard requires substantial federal support and coordination. The government must actively facilitate and incentivize necessary investments to create a robust heat safety infrastructure. By leveraging its resources, the federal government can catalyze nationwide improvements. Key actions include:

  1. Program Investment. Must significantly invest in funding agencies like OSHA and HHS to enhance their capacity to implement and enforce the safety program. This includes financial resources for hiring additional staff, improving technological capabilities, and offering comprehensive training and support to employers.
  2. Providing Financial Incentives. Should provide targeted grants, subsidies, and tax incentives. These financial aids will alleviate the burden on small and medium-sized enterprises, fostering widespread adoption of advanced heat safety measures.).
  3. Capacity Building. Must develop and support comprehensive educational programs and training workshops to enhance the capabilities of the workforce. This will ensure that workers are well-informed and equipped to effectively navigate and implement complex safety regulations.
  4. Public-Private Partnerships. Must encourage collaboration between the public sector and private enterprises, leveraging private innovation alongside public resources to ensure that safety solutions are comprehensive and widely accessible.
  5. Interagency Coordination. This involves pooling resources, expertise, and efforts from diverse federal agencies to support and enforce the heat safety regulations efficiently. Agencies should identify and allocate resources within their scope to contribute to a broad-based support network—ranging from funding and manpower to specific programmatic initiatives, as well as data-sharing and surveillance.
  6. Overcoming Bureaucratic Inertia. Delays and resistance within government agencies can impede the timely adoption and enforcement of new regulations. Streamlining processes and clear mandates can help overcome this inertia.

The Benefits of Investing in Heat Safety Infrastructure

Investing in heat safety infrastructure yields numerous benefits, including:

  1. Lives Saved, Improved Worker Health & Safety. Investing in proper heat safety infrastructure significantly reduces the incidence of heat-related illnesses, such as heat exhaustion and heat stroke, which can be fatal. This reduction cascades into numerous health and safety benefits:
    • The most immediate and crucial benefit is the preservation of human life and health
    • Enhances workplace safety culture
    • Reduces long-term health complications from chronic heat exposure
    • Enables better management of pre-existing health conditions exacerbated by heat
    • Improves public health outcomes in heat-vulnerable communities
    • Reduces inequality by protecting vulnerable worker populations
    • Example: a study reported a 91% decrease in heat-related illnesses following the implementation of safety measures.
  2. Economic Benefits. Heat safety investments stimulate economic growth through multiple channels, creating a positive ripple effect across businesses and communities. Key economic advantages include:
    • Increased workforce productivity and efficiency
    • Reduced absenteeism and turnover rates
    • Stimulation of local economies through infrastructure investments
    • Reduced healthcare costs for both employers and the broader healthcare system
    • Improved job satisfaction and worker morale
    • Enhanced employer reputation and ability to attract/retain talent
    • Example: the same study saw heat-related illness claims drop from 30 per 1,000 workers to zero, eliminating workers’ compensation claims entirely.
  3. Climate Resilience.  As global temperatures rise, building infrastructure to withstand extreme heat conditions becomes crucial for overall climate resilience. This proactive approach offers several strategic advantages:
    • Increases adaptability to rising global temperatures
    • Enables integration with broader climate adaptation strategies
    • Reduces energy consumption through efficient cooling methods
    • Enhances business continuity during extreme weather events
    • Reduces risk of legal liabilities and regulatory penalties
    • Enhances organizational preparedness for climate change impacts

Moving Forward

As we face the escalating challenges of climate change, the urgency to protect our workforce cannot be overstated. The proposed OSHA heat safety standard marks a crucial advancement in safeguarding our agricultural workers from the rise of extreme heat conditions. While some may express concerns about the costs and regulatory burden of these investments, it’s crucial to consider the long-term benefits. The initial expenses are outweighed by reduced healthcare costs, increased productivity, and avoided workers’ compensation claims. These measures protect businesses from potential legal liabilities and reputational damage associated with worker heat-related illnesses or fatalities. Moreover, investing in federal infrastructure to support this standard is a strategic imperative that will yield significant returns in public health, economic productivity, and climate resilience.

By thoughtfully allocating resources, the federal government can create a powerful framework for implementing and maximizing the impact of the proposed standard. The health and safety of millions of workers, particularly in high-risk sectors like agriculture, depend on our ability to create a comprehensive, well-resourced system. Every stakeholder from policymakers to industry leaders must now rise to the occasion. It is imperative that we channel collective efforts and resources before another heatwave claims more lives. The consequences of inaction are too severe to ignore.

For specific actions you can take to protect our outdoor workers, please refer to the strategies outlined in Appendix A: Call to Action Guide.

Appendix A. Call to Action Guide

This guide offers strategies for various stakeholders to support and enhance the implementation of OSHA’s heat safety rule.

For Policymakers

For Employers

For Workers and Advocacy Groups

For Healthcare Providers

For Researchers and Academic Institutions

How Students Helped Spur $40 million in Federal Investments in Mental Health Across Kentucky

Abigail Swisher, Rural Impact Fellow at FAS, served in the Office of Elementary and Secondary Education. This post was originally published at HomeRoom, the official blog of the U.S. Department of Education.

Sam Smith – then a student at Daviess County High School in Owensboro, Kentucky – saw that his classmates were struggling in the wake of the pandemic, so when Kentucky Lieutenant Governor Jacqueline Coleman asked if Sam and his peers on the Commissioner’s Youth Advisory Council would help to lead an initiative on youth mental health, he jumped at the chance.  

“From my time as a high school teacher, and in my role as Lt. Governor, I knew we had a mental health crisis in our classrooms,” said Lt. Governor Coleman. “But I only heard adults talking to other adults about student mental health so I decided to change that, and in the fall of 2021, the Team Kentucky Student Mental Health Initiative was born.”   

The Team Kentucky Student Mental Health Initiative: Listening to Students’ Mental Health Needs 

In 2021, the Team Kentucky Student Mental Health Initiative began with a series of statewide listening tours, where Kentucky students discussed weathering the mental health challenges of the pandemic and how policymakers could support mental health in schools moving forward. 

During ten regional action summits across rural, urban, and suburban Kentucky communities, Sam and his fellow student leaders designed discussion protocols, captured and analyzed feedback, wrote comprehensive recommendations for policymakers and  facilitated conversations with nearly 400 students.

Again and again, students said that they needed more mental health care in schools for both themselves and their teachers. In rural schools, where there tend to be fewer mental health staff relative to students, access was a particular concern.    

The West Kentucky Educational Cooperative: Using Federal Funds to Help Rural Students Recover 

Flash forward to 2024, and the results of those listening sessions have spurred $40 million in new federal investments school-based mental health staff across Kentucky communities.  

Using data from those listening sessions, five of the state’s educational cooperatives (representing groups of districts) and several individual districts successfully submitted applications to the U.S. Department of Education’s Mental Health Service Professional Demonstration Grant & School-Based Mental Health Services Grant Program for five-year grants.  

One of the recipients was West Kentucky Educational Cooperative, which represents 26 mostly rural districts. Students were just starting to recover from the pandemic when deadly tornadoes ripped across the region, costing students their homes and loved ones, and damaging several schools. In the aftermath, chronic absenteeism skyrocketed, and schools have since been hard-pressed to recruit counselors and mental health staff to help students cope.  

With U.S. Department of Education funds, the cooperative launched a partnership with Murray State University to recruit cohorts of school-based staff working in the cooperative’s highest-needs schools to complete an online Masters’ degree in Counseling, which they receive at little to no cost. Students complete both internship and practicum hours in high need schools and receive funds for additional professional learning opportunities and paid substitutes for time spent out of their current classroom jobs. The partnership has launched two cohorts of students, several of whom already have job offers from districts in hand. 

Sam Smith – now a freshman at University of Kentucky – is gratified to see this long-term effort pay off. For him, though, the most powerful part of the Student Mental Health Initiative was the act of listening: “Even if you know or think you know what’s going wrong for a group of students…hearing them share it directly is part of the solution. Giving young people space to talk about themselves is important.” 

Heat Hazards and Migrant Rights: Protecting Agricultural Workers in a Changing Climate

KEY TAKEAWAYS

KEY FACTS

In 2008, Maria Isabel Vasquez Jimenez, a 17-year-old pregnant farmworker, tragically died from heatstroke while working in the vineyards of California. Despite laboring for more than nine hours in the sweltering heat, Maria was denied access to shade and adequate water breaks. Management never called 911 and instructed her fiancé to lie about the events. To this day, her death underscores the dire need for robust protections for those who endure extreme conditions to feed our nation.

This heartbreaking incident is not isolated. With the United States shattering over a thousand temperature records last year, the crisis of heat-related illnesses in the agricultural sector is intensifying. Rising global temperatures are making heat waves more frequent and severe, posing a significant threat to farmworkers who are essential to our food supply. While progress is being made towards comprehensive heat safety regulations, we must now focus on ensuring these protections are equitably implemented to safeguard all farmworkers from the intensifying threats of climate change, especially vulnerable groups like migrants. As individual stories shed light on the real-life tragedies of neglecting climate resilience, broader climate trends reveal a significant rise in these risks, affecting agricultural workers nationwide.

Climate change & agriculture

Rising Temperatures

Climate change poses significant challenges to global agricultural systems, threatening food security, livelihoods, and the overall sustainability of farming practices. Among the various climate-related hazards, rising temperatures stand out as a primary concern for agricultural productivity and worker health and safety. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that the average temperature in the United States has increased by 1.8°F over the past century, with the most significant increases occurring in the last few decades. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, global average temperatures have been steadily increasing due to the accumulation of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere, primarily from human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation. This warming trend is expected to continue, critically impacting agricultural operations worldwide. The Union of Concerned Scientists predicts that by mid-century, the average number of days with a heat index above 100°F in the United States will more than double, severely impacting agricultural productivity and worker health. As the climate continues to change, the direct threats to those who supply our food become increasingly severe, particularly for farmworkers exposed to the elements.

Threats to Farmworkers

In agriculture, rising temperatures worsen challenges like water scarcity, soil degradation, and pest infestations, and introduce new risks like heat stress for farmworkers. As temperatures rise, heatwaves become more frequent, intense, and prolonged, posing serious threats to the health and well-being of agricultural workers who perform physically demanding tasks outdoors. Heat stress can lead to heat-related illnesses such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke, which can be life-threatening if not properly managed. Prolonged exposure to high temperatures can impair cognitive function, reduce productivity, and increase the risk of accidents and injuries in the workplace. According to the Public Citizen, from 2000 to 2010, as many as 2,000 workers  died each year from heat-related causes in the United States, while farmworkers are 20 times more likely to die from heat-related illnesses than other workers.

Given the critical role of agricultural workers in food production and supply chains, protecting their health and safety in the face of escalating heat risks is critical. Comprehensive heat safety standards and regulations are essential to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change on farmworkers and ensure the sustainability and resilience of agricultural operations. By implementing comprehensive heat safety measures such as heat acclimatization guidelines, shade access, and regular rest breaks, agricultural employers can minimize the risk of heat-related illnesses and injuries. Effective heat standard implementation requires collaboration among policymakers, industry stakeholders, and worker advocacy groups to address climate change challenges and protect agricultural workers. Beyond the direct effects of heat, farmworkers also face compounded environmental hazards that further jeopardize their health and safety.

Compounded Hazards

While the focus of this discussion is on heat safety regulations, it’s important to recognize that these regulations intersect with broader environmental and health challenges faced by agricultural workers. High temperatures often coincide with wildfire seasons, leading to increased exposure to wildfire smoke. This overlap amplifies health risks like respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, disproportionately affecting workers with vulnerable conditions. Effective protection against these compounded hazards requires coordination among policymakers and industry leaders. Comprehensive standards and holistic safety measures are crucial to mitigate the risks associated with heat and to address the broader spectrum of environmental pollutants. While environmental hazards are a significant concern, the specific vulnerabilities of migrant workers introduce additional layers of risk and complexity.

Challenges faced by migrant workers

Recognizing these challenges is only the first step; next, we must assess how current protections measure up and where they fall short in safeguarding these vulnerable populations.

Understanding the Vulnerabilities

Migrant agricultural workers face socioeconomic, legal, and environmental challenges that increase their vulnerability to heat hazards. Economically, many migrant workers endure low wages and lack access to adequate healthcare, which complicates their ability to cope with and recover from heat-related illnesses. A study by the National Center for Farmworker Health found that 85% of migrant workers earn less than the federal poverty level, making it difficult for them to access necessary medical care. Legally, the fragile status of many migrant workers, including those on temporary visas or without documentation, exacerbates their vulnerability. These workers often hesitate to report violations or seek help due to fear of retaliation, job loss, or deportation.

Harsh Working Conditions

Additionally, migrant workers frequently labor in conditions that provide minimal protection against the elements. Excessive heat exposure is compounded by inadequate access to water, shade, and breaks, making outdoor work particularly dangerous during heatwaves. Furthermore, many migrant workers return after work to substandard housing that lacks essential cooling or ventilation, preventing effective recovery from daily heat exposure and exacerbating dehydration and heat-related health risks. According to the National Center for Farmworker Health, about 40% of migrant farmworkers in the United States live in homes without air conditioning.

Barriers to Protection

The barriers to effective heat protection for migrant workers are extensive and complex, which may prevent them from accessing crucial protections and resources, including:

Language Diversity. The migrant worker community is incredibly diverse, encompassing individuals from various cultural and linguistic backgrounds. In the U.S. agricultural sector, over 50% of workers report limited English proficiency. This diversity may present a significant challenge to understand their rights and the safety measures available to them. Even when regulations and protections are in place, the communication of these policies often fails to reach non-English speaking workers effectively, leading to misunderstandings that can prevent them from advocating for their safety and well-being. The National Agricultural Workers Survey reports that 77% of farmworkers in the United States are foreign-born, with 68% primarily speaking Spanish, highlighting the language barriers that complicate effective communication of safety regulations.

Vulnerable Visas & Immigration Status. Visa statuses and undocumented immigration also play a critical role in the vulnerability of migrant workers. Workers holding temporary visas, such as H-2A visas, often face precarious employment conditions because these visas tie them to specific employers, limiting their ability to assert their rights without fear of retaliation. Undocumented workers are particularly susceptible to exploitation and abuse by employers who may use their immigration status as leverage. Fear of deportation and legal repercussions further discourages reporting workplace incidents, perpetuating a cycle of exploitation and vulnerability.

Undocumented workers are particularly susceptible to exploitation and abuse by employers who may use their immigration status as leverage

via Tim Mossholder

Farmworker Housing. Farmworker housing often lacks proper cooling or ventilation, increasing heat exposure risks during off-work hours. Many agricultural workers live in substandard housing characterized by overcrowding, poor insulation, and inadequate access to air conditioning or ventilation systems. Poor living conditions worsen heat-related illnesses, particularly during extreme weather. Limited access to cooling amenities after long hours of outdoor labor exacerbates heat stress and heightens the health risks associated with heat exposure.

Recognizing these challenges is only the first step; next, we must assess how current protections measure up and where they fall short in safeguarding these vulnerable populations.

Review of existing protections

Federal Efforts

Currently, there is no overarching federal mandate specifically addressing heat exposure, leaving significant gaps in worker protection, especially for vulnerable populations like migrant workers. However, the federal government has taken several critical steps to address heat safety in the interim. OSHA has moved beyond relying solely on the General Duty Clause, launching a National Emphasis Program that prioritizes inspections on high-heat days and increases outreach in vulnerable industries. The Biden administration’s Heat Hazard Alert in July 2023 further emphasized employers’ responsibilities, while the initiation of a federal heat standard through OSHA’s rulemaking process signals a commitment to sweeping, nationwide protections.

These efforts reflect progress but it’s crucial that these federal efforts evolve to address the unique challenges faced by workers, ensuring that no one is left behind in the implementation of heat safety measures. The true test of these regulations will be their ability to safeguard those most at risk, bridging gaps in protection and creating a more resilient workforce in the face of rising temperatures.

State-Level Protections

At the state level, the scenario is mixed, with states like California, Washington, and Oregon having implemented their own heat safety regulations, which provide a model for other states and potentially for federal standards. Oregon’s regulations, for instance, require employers to provide drinking water, access to shade, and adequate rest periods during high heat conditions. These measures are designed not just to respond to the immediate needs of workers but also to educate them on the risks of heat exposure and the importance of self-care in high temperatures. When Oregon implemented stricter heat safety standards, it saw a significant reduction in heat-related illnesses reported among agricultural workers. By requiring more frequent breaks, adequate hydration, and access to shade, Oregon’s regulations demonstrate how well-designed policies can decrease the incidence of heat stress and related medical emergencies. California has also taken a comprehensive approach with its Heat Illness Prevention Program, which extends protections to both outdoor and indoor workers, reflecting the broad scope of heat hazards. This program is noted for its requirements, including training programs that educate workers on preventing heat illness, emergency response strategies, and the necessity of acclimatization.

Legislative Challenges & Need for Unified Approach

Conversely, legislative actions in states like Florida and Texas represent a significant challenge to advancements in occupational heat safety. For example, Florida’s HB 433, recently signed into law, expressly prohibits local governments from enacting regulations that would mandate workplace protections against heat exposure. This legislation stalls progress and endangers workers by blocking local standards tailored to the state’s specific needs.

The contradiction between states pushing for more stringent protections and those opposing regulatory measures illustrates a fragmented approach that could undermine worker safety nationwide. Without a federal standard, the protection a worker receives is largely dependent on state policies, which may not adequately address the specific risks associated with heat exposure in increasingly hot climates. This patchwork of regulations underscores the importance of a unified federal standard that could provide consistent and enforceable protections across all states, ensuring that no worker, regardless of geographical location, is left vulnerable to the dangers of heat exposure.

With an understanding of the gaps in current heat safety regulations, the next crucial step is fostering effective stakeholder engagement to drive meaningful changes.

Engaging Stakeholders: Beyond Public Comment

While progress has been made in recognizing the need for heat safety regulations, we must now focus on ensuring equitable representation in the policy-making process. Traditional engagement methods have often fallen short in capturing the voices of those most impacted by these policies, particularly vulnerable groups like migrant agricultural workers. Regulatory agencies must rethink their strategies to include more direct and inclusive approaches, empowering workers to contribute meaningfully to policies that directly affect their safety and well-being.

Challenges in Traditional Engagement

The traditional approaches to stakeholder engagement, particularly in regulatory settings, often rely heavily on formal mechanisms like public comment periods. While these methods are structured to gather feedback, they frequently fall short of engaging those most impacted by the policies—namely, the workers themselves. Many workers, especially in labor-intensive sectors like agriculture, may not have the time, resources, or knowledge to participate in these processes. Relying on online submissions or weekday meetings during work hours can exclude many workers whose insights are crucial for shaping effective regulations. A survey conducted by the Migrant Clinicians Network found that fewer than 10% of migrant workers had participated in any form of public comment or feedback process related to workplace safety.

The complexities of these workers’ lives—ranging from language barriers to fear of retaliation—mean that conventional engagement strategies may not effectively reach or address their concerns. This gap highlights a critical need for regulatory bodies to rethink and expand their engagement strategies to include more direct and inclusive methods.

As we push for broader and more inclusive engagement, we must also consider systemic improvements that can solidify these efforts into lasting safety standards.

Looking Forward: Systemic Improvements & Community Collaboration

Protecting migrant workers from extreme heat requires systemic improvements and a coordinated approach to address gaps in current regulations and foster collaborative efforts among stakeholders. By combining the strengths of government agencies, employers, and community advocates, we can develop robust solutions of heat safety which protect the well-being of vulnerable workers while supporting the productivity and resilience of the agricultural industry.

Systemic Changes Needed

To effectively protect migrant workers from the dangers of extreme heat, systematic changes are required. On the regulatory side, this includes boosting the human resources and funding available to agencies like OSHA to ensure they can effectively implement and enforce new heat safety standards. Building robust infrastructure for enforcement and consultation is crucial, as is ensuring these bodies can handle the demands of new regulatory programs. From the employer and industry perspective, federal support is essential. Incentives such as tax breaks or reimbursement programs similar to those provided under the Families First Coronavirus Response Act during the COVID-19 pandemic could motivate employers to adhere more strictly to safety standards, knowing they can recoup some costs associated with implementing safety measures like paid sick leave.

Fostering a Safe Reporting Culture

Creating a workplace that encourages safe and open communication is vital. Employers must be encouraged to establish non-retaliatory policies and to offer regular training sessions that educate workers about their rights and the importance of reporting safety violations. Reporting mechanisms should protect employee anonymity to reduce fear of retaliation. These practices can improve safety, while also enhancing worker retention and morale, contributing to a healthier workplace culture.

Role of Community & Grassroots Advocacy

Grassroots organizations and community advocates play a pivotal role in shaping and enforcing heat safety regulations. These groups often have direct insights into the needs and challenges of workers on the ground and can help tailor educational and enforcement strategies to the community context. Collaborations with these organizations can facilitate the delivery of multilingual training and legal assistance, ensuring that workers are well-informed about their rights and the safety measures in place to protect them. Additionally, these partnerships can help to monitor compliance and gather grassroots feedback on the efficacy of the regulatory measures. A notable example is the partnership between California Rural Legal Assistance and local farming communities to develop heat stress prevention training tailored to the languages and cultures of the workers. This program has improved knowledge and awareness of heat stress risks among workers, and has also empowered them to take proactive steps in managing their health during extreme conditions. Evaluations of this initiative show a marked improvement in both the adoption of safety practices and worker satisfaction, highlighting the importance of community-driven approaches in policy implementation.

To support these systemic changes, strategic investments are essential, not only to enhance regulatory capacity but to ensure the long-term health and productivity of the agricultural workforce.

The Power of Investment

Investing in heat safety offers strategic, far-reaching benefits for both workers and employers alike. By funding regulatory frameworks and workplace safety programs, organizations can effectively mitigate the impact of heat-related illnesses and injuries. Such investments can enhance regulatory agencies’ capacity to enforce standards while creating safer, more productive work environments that benefit businesses and employees. An investment approach to heat safety strengthens economic sustainability, worker well-being, and industry compliance.

By funding regulatory frameworks and workplace safety programs, organizations can effectively mitigate the impact of heat-related illnesses and injuries.

via Tim Mossholder

Envisioning Enhanced Regulatory Capacity

In the pursuit of more effective heat safety regulations, one critical aspect overlooked is the role of increased investment in regulatory agencies like OSHA. An addition of resources into these bodies is not merely a bureaucratic expansion but a potential lifesaver. Research consistently demonstrates that increased funding for regulatory enforcement can significantly enhance compliance and improve safety outcomes. This investment empowers agencies to provide greater education and outreach, conduct more inspections, and enforce compliance more effectively, which are essential for protecting workers from heat-related hazards. Enhancing the capacity of organizations like OSHA to enforce heat safety standards saves lives, while supporting economic efficiency and sustainability in labor-intensive industries. These investments ensure that safety regulations evolve from paper to practice, significantly impacting the lives of those they are designed to protect.

Economic Benefit

Economic analyses further support the notion that investing in worker safety is not just a cost but a strategic benefit. Studies show that every dollar spent on improving workplace safety yields substantial returns in reducing the costs of workplace injuries and deaths. For instance, implementing stringent heat safety measures not only reduces the incidence of heat-related illnesses but also cuts down on associated costs such as medical expenses, workers’ compensation, and lost workdays. This is particularly relevant in sectors like agriculture, where the physical nature of the work increases vulnerability to heat stress. The economic benefit for employers extends beyond direct cost savings. Maintaining a safe work environment enhances a company’s reputation, aids in employee retention, and increases productivity. Workers are more likely to stay with an employer they trust to prioritize their health and safety, which is crucial in industries facing labor shortages. A culture that encourages reporting and promptly addresses safety concerns can significantly reduce the risk of severe injuries and fatalities, further lowering potential liabilities and insurance costs.

Employer Benefit

A compelling example of the benefits of proactive safety measures is the Gold Star Grower Program in North Carolina. This program recognizes agricultural employers who provide housing that  meets and exceeds the requirements of the Migrant Housing Act of North Carolina. This recognition serves as a badge of honor, indicating to potential employees that these employers value worker well-being. Reports suggest that workers actively seek out employers with this certification, preferring to work in environments where their health and safety are a priority. A preference like this can drive more growers to participate in safety programs, fostering a broader culture of safety and compliance within the industry.

Call for Collaborative Action

As the climate crisis continues, so does the threat of heat exposure to agricultural workers, posing grave risks to their health and to the core of our food supply systems. The necessity for comprehensive heat safety measures is now both urgent and undeniable. 

Governments at every level, employers across industries, community groups, and the workers themselves must unite to create resilient, practical strategies that prioritize safety and health. The cost of inaction is stark, exceeding $100 billion annually— not only affecting the economy but leading to the irreplaceable loss of life and well-being. 

We are at a critical juncture which demands a unified, strong response to heat hazards. By adopting systemic improvements and fostering a culture of collaboration and proactive communication, we have the opportunity to safeguard those most vulnerable to the impacts of climate threats.  

As we progress towards implementing rigorous heat safety regulations, our focus must now shift to ensuring these protections reach all workers equitably. Let’s mobilize, from grassroots movements to national policy reforms, to create inclusive implementation strategies that protect our most vulnerable workers, particularly migrants, and secure our collective future.

For resources on how you can support these critical efforts, please refer to the guides provided in Appendix A and B, which offer strategies for advocacy, community engagement, and policy development. Together, our collective efforts can protect our most vulnerable and build a resilient path forward in the face of climate change.

APPENDIX A: RESOURCE GUIDE

Further information and support on heat-related safety and worker rights

Resources for Migrant Workers

Resources for Employers

Resources for Policymakers

APPENDIX B: ACTION GUIDE

Support Legislative Changes

Participate in Advocacy Efforts

Engage in Policy Development

Climate Change Challenges and Solutions in Forestry & Agriculture

Climate change is already impacting agriculture and forestry production in the U.S. However, these sectors also hold the key to adaptation and mitigation. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is at the forefront of addressing these challenges and developing solutions. Understanding the implications of climate change in agriculture and forestry is crucial for our nation to forge ahead with effective strategies and outcomes, ensuring our food and shelter resources remain secure.

Currently, the atmosphere contains more key greenhouse gasses (nitrous oxides, carbon dioxide, methane) than ever in history thanks to human activities. Industrial, agricultural, and deforestation practices add to the abundance of these critical gasses that are warming our planet. This has become more noticeable through more frequent severe weather and natural disasters with record heat waves, droughts, tornadoes, and rainfall. In 2023, global climate records of temperatures were broken and hit the highest in the last 174 years. Ocean temperatures are reaching record levels, along with major melts in ice sheets. All these changes will affect forestry and agriculture in profound ways. Crop damaging insects and diseases, along with other stresses caused by extreme changes, will also have cascading effects.

Adjustments or adaptations in response to climate change have progressed globally, with planning and implementation across multiple sectors and regions. While much attention is being paid to reforestation and reducing deforestation, gaps still exist and will need continued attention and financial input to address current and future challenges. Agriculture and forestry are two sectors worth exploring as they can open up climate adaptation and mitigation solutions that have positive cascading benefits across regions.

Challenges in the Agriculture and Forestry Sector

Agriculture contributes to greenhouse gas emissions through several activities, such as burning crop residues, soil management and fertilization, animal manure management, and rice cultivation. In addition, agriculture requires significant amounts of energy for vehicles, tractors, harvest, and irrigation equipment. Agriculture involves complex systems that include inputs of fertilizers and chemicals, management decisions, social factors, and interactions between climate and soil.

Most agriculture operations need fertilizers to produce goods, but the management and specific use of fertilizers need further focus. According to the Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, agriculture contributes 9.4% of total greenhouse gas emissions in the United States.

Agriculture is particularly vulnerable to climate change because many operations are exposed to climatic changes in the natural landscape. There has been widespread economic damage in agriculture due to climate change. Individuals and farms have been affected by flooding, tornadoes, extreme wildfires, droughts, and excessive rains. Loss of property and income, human health, and food security is real for agriculture producers. Adverse impacts will continue to be felt in agricultural systems, particularly in crop production, water availability, animal health, and pests and diseases.

Forestry is a major industry in the U.S. and plays a key role in regulating the climate by transferring carbon within ecosystems and the atmosphere.. Forests remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and store it in trees and soils. Forestry has seen a decline in the last few decades due to development and cropland expansion. The decline in forestry acres affects essential services such as air purification, regulating water quantity and quality, wood products for shelter, outdoor recreation, medicines, and wildlife habitat. Many Indigenous people and Tribal Nations depend on forest ecosystems for food, timber, culture, and traditions. Effective forest management is crucial for human well-being and is influenced by social and economic factors.

Land cover types and distribution of the United States. Forest lands have decreased in the last two decades. (Source: Fifth National Climate Assessment)

Forests are affected by climate change on local or regional levels based on climate conditions such as rainfall and temperature. The West has been significantly affected, with higher temperatures and drought leading to more wildfires. Higher temperatures come with higher evaporation rates, leading to drier forests that are susceptible to fires. The greater amount of dry wood causes extensive fires that burn more intensely. Fire activity is projected to increase with further warming and less rain. Since 1990, these extensive fires have produced greater greenhouse gas emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2). Other regions of the country with forests that typically receive more rain, like the southeast and northeast, are challenging to predict fire hazards. Other climate change effects include insects, diseases, and invasive species, which change forest ecosystems’ growth, death, and regeneration. Various degrees of disruption can impact a forest’s dynamics.

Current Adaptation Approaches in Agriculture and Forestry

Since agriculture’s largest contribution to greenhouse gas emissions is agriculture soil management, emphasis is being placed on reducing emissions from this process. Farmers are tilling less and using cover crops to keep the ground covered, which helps soils perform the important function of carbon storage. These techniques can also help lower soil temperatures and conserve moisture. In addition, those working in the agriculture sector are taking measures to adapt to the changing climate by developing crops that can withstand higher temperatures and water stress. Ecosystem-based solutions such as wetland restoration to reduce flooding have also been effective. Another potential solution is agroforestry, in which trees are planted, and other agricultural products are grown between the trees or livestock is grazed within a forestry system. This system provides shade to the animals and enhances biodiversity. It protects water bodies by keeping the soil covered with vegetation throughout the year. The perennial vegetation also stores carbon in above-ground vegetation and below-ground roots.

In the forestry space, land managers and owners are developing plans to adapt to climate challenges by building adaptations in key areas such as relationships and connections of land stewardship, research teamwork, and education curriculum. Several guides, assessments, and frameworks have been designed to help private forest owners, Tribal lands, and federally managed forests. Tribal adaptation plans also include Tribal values and cultural considerations for forests. The coasts will be adapting to more frequent flooding, and relocation of recreation areas in vulnerable areas is being planned. In major forestry production areas in the West, forestry agencies are developing plans for prescribed burning to keep dead wood lower, eliminate invasive species, and enable fire-adapted ecosystems to thrive, all while reducing severe wildfires. Thinning forests and fuel removal also help with reducing wildfire risk.      

While both sectors have made progress in quickly adjusting their practices, much more needs to be done to ensure that land managers and affected communities are better prepared for both the short-term and long-term effects of climate change. The federal government, through USDA, can drive adaptation efforts to help these communities.

Current Policy

The USDA created the Climate Adaptation and Resilience Plan in response to Executive Order 14008, Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad, which requires all federal agencies to develop climate adaptation plans in all public service aspects, including management, operations, missions, and programs. 

The adaptation plan focuses on key threats to agriculture and forestry, such as:

Many USDA agencies have developed actions to address the impacts of climate change in different mission areas of USDA. These adaptation plans provide information for farmers, ranchers, forest owners, rural communities, trade and foreign affairs on ways to address the impact of climate change that affects them the most. For example, farm and ranch managers can use COMET Farm, a user-friendly online tool co-developed by Colorado State University and USDA that helps compare land management practices and account for carbon and greenhouse gas emissions.

USDA has invested $3.1 billion in Partnerships for Climate-Smart Commodities, encompassing 141 projects that involve small and underserved producers. The diverse projects are matched financially with non-federal funds and include over 20 tribal projects, 100 universities, including 30 minority-serving institutions, and others. The goals of the federal and private sector funding include:

The USDA Forest Service has also developed its own Climate Adaptation Plan that comprehensively incorporates climate adaptation into its mission and operations. The Forest Service has cultivated partnerships with the Northwest Climate Hub, National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, University of Washington, and the Climate Impacts Group to develop tools and data to help with decision-making, evaluations, and developing plans for implementation. One notable example is the Sustainability and Climate website, which provides information on adaptation, vulnerability assessments, carbon, and other aspects of land management. 

Conclusion

While sustained government incentives can help drive adaptation efforts, it is important for everyone to play a role in adapting to climate change, especially in the agriculture and forestry sectors. Purchasing products that are grown sustainably and in climate-smart ways will help protect natural resources and support these communities. Understanding the significance of resilience against climate changes and disruptions is crucial, both in the short and long term. These challenges require collaborators to work together to creatively solve problems in addressing greenhouse gas contributions. Climate models can help solve complex problems and test different scenarios and solutions. As the Fifth National Climate Assessment of the United States notes, greenhouse gas concentrations are increasing, global warming is on the rise, and climate change is currently happening. The choices we make now can have a significant impact on our future.

The Federation of American Scientists values diversity of thought and believes that a range of perspectives — informed by evidence — is essential for discourse on scientific and societal issues. Contributors allow us to foster a broader and more inclusive conversation. We encourage constructive discussion around the topics we care about.

Soil and Water: Why We Need Conservation Agriculture 

On May 1, 2023, a devastating dust storm  – the result of severe wind erosion –  propelled soil across highway I-55, causing numerous accidents, injuries, and loss of life. The factors that led to this erosion event were excessive tillage, exposed soils, and windy conditions. In response, the Journal of Soil and Water Conservation published an article proposing a “Soil Health Act,” to improve conservation agriculture policy.  

Most erosion is a direct result of human activities, such as leaving the soil bare for extended periods and excessive tillage in agricultural fields. Extreme weather events exacerbate soil erosion, with large wind erosion events damaging crops and causing air pollution in nearby communities. Water erosion can strip productive topsoil from cropland, reducing crop productivity and depositing sediment in water bodies. The Fifth National Climate Assessment further confirms that extreme weather is on the rise.

The United States boasts some of the most productive soils globally, particularly in the Midwest region, known as the corn belt. This vast expanse of farmland, which drains into the Mississippi River and eventually reaches the Gulf of Mexico, is a crucial part of our country’s agricultural landscape. However, this network of soil and water, while offering significant benefits, also poses significant challenges if not properly cared for.

Map of U.S. major agriculture cropland areas in dark green. These regions also have highly productive soils. The Midwest soils of Iowa, southern Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, southern Wisconsin, and Ohio are globally significant breadbasket soils. (Source: National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2017).

Wind erosion in the left photo is active in many regions of the country, leading to poor soil conditions for agricultural production. Water erosion takes productive topsoil and applied fertilizers and chemical products used off cropland as it heads toward streams. (Source: Jodie McVane (left) and Rodale Institute (right))

Fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and other products can enter water sources through two primary pathways: soil and chemical losses. Chemical losses can contaminate groundwater by moving down through the soil profile. Contaminated groundwater flows into private and public water supply wells , with many wells having high nitrate levels from commercial fertilizers and animal applications of manure. Nitrates can pose health risks to infants, cause toxic anemia, and how red blood cells deliver oxygen to the cells and tissues. In adults, reproductive health issues and certain cancers are also possible. And it’s not just nitrates: Atrazine, a common chemical used to control weeds, is found in many drinking wells across the U.S.

When soil erodes it takes nitrates, atrazine, and other contaminants away from land surfaces and into surface waterways, leading to water quality problems and soil sediment pollution. Many land managers try to avoid creating runoff, but agricultural practices leaving soils exposed with no plant residues and erosive storms make this a common occurrence. Soil erosion impacts can also be experienced as sedimentation and murky waters in recreational water bodies, roads covered with mud, and dirty snow covered with wind-blown soils, all of which affect everyday life and are undesirable for fish and plants. The lack of soil protection during the non-crop growing season in the U.S. has caused soil erosion and degradation of precious resources, diminishing the ability to grow food, fiber, and wood and provide clean water. Thus, erosion affects long-term production and economic viability for farms.

Protecting Our Soils Through Conservation Agriculture

Fortunately, we can find solutions through conservation agriculture–a system of farming practices, which includes cover crops and reduced tillage, that protects soil and prevents both soil and chemical losses. Growing plants year-round can address soil loss by keeping the soil covered with plants known as cover crops like corn, soybean, and cotton. Others, like grasses, legumes, and forbs can be grown for seasonal cover. Reduced tillage from cover crops can be beneficial in several different ways:

They control erosion, build healthy soils, and improve water quality. Cover crops planted during these periods can scavenge unused fertilizers from the previous crop and prevent nutrients from reaching surface and groundwater systems. Reducing tillage or switching to no-till cropping systems can also increase soil structure and aid in water infiltration, helping water get into the soil instead of running off.

When soils have many soil organisms with a favorable habitat, they can break down chemical pollutants effectively before reaching groundwater. Cover crops can also play a vital role in absorbing nitrates or other contaminants. Studies have shown that cover crops can reduce nitrates by 48% before they reach subsurface waters. Reduced tillage can provide habitats for these organisms by reducing soil disturbance. 

Cover crops capture sunlight and use plants’ photosynthetic processes to capture carbon in plant shoots and root systems. Much carbon is stored in our soils through plant roots. When the plants die, their roots remain in the soil, keeping the carbon sequestered. Excessive tillage breaks soil structure and releases carbon. Reduced tillage and no-till cropping systems allow soils to better maintain their carbon content.

Diverse cover crop species can be mixed, which leads to the diversification of plant roots and above-ground biomass. Furthermore, diversity above ground also means diversity below ground for soil organisms. Grasses can also be utilized alone to effectively suppress weeds and protect against erosion. Cover crops can capture carbon and increase carbon storage in soils, so planting cover crops yearly is important. (Source: Jodie McVane)

Federal and State Government Incentives to Expand Conservation Agricultural Practices     

Overall, cover crop use is low in the United States and varies depending on established social norms, soils, climate, primary crops, outreach programs, and conservation technical assistance. According to the USDA Economic Research Service, cover crop use increased from 3.4% of U.S. cropland in 2012 to 5.1% in 2017. The increase is positive, but millions of cropland acres can still benefit from applying cover crops and reduced tillage. While the use of conservation agriculture is an individual land manager’s choice and overall cover crop remains low, the USDA report notes that there has been some progress and positive trends. Continued incentives from both federal and state governments will be crucial to encourage wide adoption of conservation agricultural practices. 

Many USDA programs provide cost-sharing incentives to farmers who voluntarily encourage using cover crops, reducing tillage, planting grasslands, and diversifying crop rotations. The Farm Bill provides funding to assist farmers through the USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS) programs, such as the Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) and the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP). In addition to the Farm Bill, the Inflation Reduction Act provided additional funds to USDA-NRCS through these same programs to promote Climate Smart Agriculture and Forestry Mitigation activities. The Inflation Reduction Act makes nearly $20 billion additional dollars available over five years for these programs. Current federal policy allows these programs to fund conservation practices for 3-5 years on a typical farm. Some states are also leading in incentivizing land managers to apply cover crops. States providing monetary incentives include Maryland, Iowa, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, and Virginia.

A mix of cover crops of grasses and broadleaves in the fall after a corn crop in the Midwest. (left photo) A cereal ryegrass cover crop holds the soil in place with fibrous root systems and protects the soil surface from water or wind erosion while suppressing weeds. (right photo) (Source: Jodie McVane)

Current Gaps and Proposed Policies

We will need lasting policies and sustainable funding  to ensure the long-term adoption of conservation agricultural practices. Current voluntary conservation programs only provide funding for a 5-year period, which does not guarantee that farmers will permanently transition to conservation agriculture practices.

The federal government should incentivize the adoption of soil health practices and conservation agriculture widely across the United States in three ways:     

Fund organizations that can provide educational events for farmers, consultants, policy groups, and consumers. These organizations are valuable and promote farmer-led education and peer-to-peer mentoring. Farmers enjoy learning from other farmers along with research experts.

Reward farmers who adopt conservation agriculture systems by providing long-term payments for continued use of conservation practices. Farmers who adopt these practices would benefit from their ecosystem services, such as building soil carbon, improving water quality, maintaining stable soil structure, and increasing water infiltration, which could significantly impact the health of our cropland acres.

Provide a reduction-based premium discount in the Federal Crop Insurance program for agricultural commodity producers that use risk-reduction farming practices, including cover crops. A discount on the insurance premium can have a lasting effect and provide a continued financial incentive to perform conservation on farms. 

Soil is the foundation of our national health, providing food, homes, fibers, and the structural foundations for everyday life. Soils filter water for clean drinking, safe fishing, and other recreational activities, enabling our farms, factories, homes, schools, universities, and state and federal governments to access clean water; the widespread adoption of conservation agricultural practices to protect soils is key to ensuring food security for current and future generations in the United States. Healthy soils can protect not only our national treasure but also our national security and ability to care for our citizens. 

As President Franklin D. Roosevelt said, “The nation that destroys its soil destroys itself.” Imagine driving around the country and seeing continuous vegetation growing, protecting soils, capturing carbon, and protecting our water resources. It would be a different landscape in our nation and, over the years, could improve the culture of agriculture.

The Federation of American Scientists values diversity of thought and believes that a range of perspectives — informed by evidence — is essential for discourse on scientific and societal issues. Contributors allow us to foster a broader and more inclusive conversation. We encourage constructive discussion around the topics we care about.

Excited Delirium: A Fatal Term Laid to Rest

Excited delirium, a diagnosis generally characterized by a severely agitated state, made headlines in some of the most contentious deaths in custody, including being mentioned by an officer as a concern when George Floyd was in a prolonged prone position. Law enforcement officers have been trained to recognize excited delirium as a medical emergency requiring immediate medical intervention when someone shows extreme agitation, incoherent speech, increased pain with decreased sensitivity to pain, confusion or rapid changes in emotion, and muscle rigidity. Once the person is in custody or restrained, training outlined putting the person into the recovery position to avoid positional asphyxiation and awareness that sudden death can occur after a violent struggle. Autopsies in excited delirium cases generally reveal lung and brain swelling coupled with heart disease and recent cocaine use without providing a direct cause of death. The lack of clear signs of death during an autopsy requires forensic pathologists to relate known circumstances to the cardiovascular collapse.

History of a Controversial Term

The controversy around the use of excited delirium as a cause of death is that it was not formally recognized as a distinct medical diagnosis by many of the top medical associations, including the World Health Organization, the American Medical Association (AMA), and the American Psychiatric Association. The disputable cause of death has never been formally recognized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), a guide to symptom diagnosis for mental health conditions, or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), a guide to diseases and conditions to assist with classification and statistics tracking published by the World Health Organization. The lack of an ICD code dramatically reduces the ability to track the diagnosis in fatal and non-fatal circumstances. The American College of Emergency Physicians was the only medical organization that formally supported the diagnosis of excited delirium and its clinical use. The ACEP confirmed their support for the excited delirium diagnosis in 2021 and formally retracted their support for using the terminology in April 2023. The National Association of Medical Examiners does not endorse the use of excited delirium as a cause of death and recommends using underlying causes of the suspected delirium as the cause of death.

The history of excited delirium was first noted in the 19th century with the term delirious mania, with someone suffering from hyperactivity, psychosis, and sudden collapse. Other psychiatrists across the world added to the body of research and changed the mania phraseology, with excited delirium being coined in 1985 by an American forensic pathologist and psychiatrist to describe a person with superhuman strength, extreme fear and paranoia, hyperthermia, agitation, and generally involving recent cocaine use. Through the eyes of a forensic pathologist, there was no specific anatomic cause of death but a process of ruling out causes of death, such as in sudden unidentified infant death syndrome. In their seminal work, Drs. Welti and Fishbain reviewed seven case studies with cocaine involved with all and the decedents being hyperactive, violent, yelling, and thrashing around. Six of the seven case studies had increased strength, and all required restraints to reduce the violence. A 1998 review of 21 excited delirium deaths in Ontario, Canada, showed that all cases involved restraint for violence and hyperactivity with 18 people being in the prone position and three having pressure placed on their necks at the time of death, suggesting that the position of restraint may be directly related to the death and not the excited delirium itself. At least 166 deaths in police custody from 2010-2020 were attributed to excited delirium across the nation, though required reporting through the 2013 Death in Custody Reporting Act is complicated with data collection and antiquated reporting mechanisms.

The AMA noted that excited delirium was not a supported medical diagnosis and condemned the potential recognition of excited delirium as the sole reason for law enforcement officers to use excessive force. The AMA recognized that excited delirium has been disproportionately used in diagnoses for in-custody deaths of underrepresented minorities and misused to justify police actions. The 2021 policy also recommended utilizing non-law enforcement practitioners for de-escalation efforts and appropriate medication intervention, further recognizing racism as a threat to public health. One of the physicians who coined the term excited delirium completed a review of sex workers with a recreational drug use history and suggested that the deaths were due to a variant of excited delirium. All of the sex workers were Black women, and exhumations of some decedents after the forensic pathologist’s cause of death attribution to excited delirium was incorrect as the decedents were strangled to death, later leading to the arrest of a serial killer.

Citing Proper Cause of Death Classification

California banned the use of an excited delirium diagnosis as a cause of death, in medical treatments, police reports, and court proceedings. Assembly Bill 360 updated the California Evidence Code to state that excited delirium is not a valid cause of death or medical diagnosis but that descriptions of behavioral signs and symptoms can be stated in police reports and civil actions. The bill was signed into law in October 2023, marking the first state in the union to restrict the use of excited delirium. Some law enforcement agencies in California, in advance of the ban, removed the controversial term from policies and training material to focus on racial equity. Colorado’s Peace Officer Standards and Training, a law enforcement certifying board, will be removing excited delirium from law enforcement training starting on January 1, 2024. The updated training curriculum will focus on providing care to subjects in custody and requesting appropriate levels of care.

While the banning of the term excited delirium is logical based on its history and unsupported medical research, there are concerns about the government restricting medical professionals from being able to properly diagnose and classify their work. The Texas Governor signed HB 6 into law in June 2023, classifying all opioid toxicity-related deaths as poisonings to allow for homicide charges against those who manufacture and sell illegal drugs. California had its first successful prosecution of a drug dealer who sold a fentanyl-laced pill to a decedent in August 2023. However, there is no evidence that prosecutions for drug toxicity-related deaths are a deterrent to drug use or save lives. Texas did not pass the legalization of fentanyl test strips, allowing people to test their drugs for the presence of fentanyl prior to ingestion. Dictating exact wording for death certificates, such as “fentanyl poisoning” for opioid-related deaths may be the start of a slippery slope for laws restricting medical expertise and diagnoses.

History has been made to bar the use of excited delirium in medical and law enforcement settings, though recognizing medical and psychiatric emergencies is vitally important for the person in crisis to receive appropriate treatment. When someone shows signs of extreme agitation, incoherent speech, confusion, and paranoia, activating the emergency 9-1-1 system is essential to reducing mortality. Law enforcement officers should follow appropriate policies and procedures for deescalating and obtaining immediate care and referrals to mental health professionals to increase survival and recovery through crisis events.

Community School Approach Reaches High of 60%, Reports Latest Pulse Panel

According to the National Center for Education Statistics’ August 2023 pulse panel, 60% of public schools were utilizing a “community school” or “wraparound services model” at the start of this school year—up from 45% last year. This survey builds on a trend of education policy leaders across the country increasing their focus on the place-based, whole child approach called community schools. Experts note no two community schools are the same, but they do build on the Science of Learning and Development to offer at least four common practices—student and family engagement; collaborative leadership; expanded, enriched learning opportunities, and integrated systems of support. These common community school practices or pillars have an expanding evidence base and growing consensus of support, which are well suited to meet the multifaceted needs of our students coming out of the pandemic. As we transition our education systems to a post pandemic world, policymakers should make community schools an increasing part of America’s future. 

Need for a Community School Approach

Recent headlines show that the effects of the pandemic are not going away even though federal-relief funds are. Young people are living with continued anxiety and depression, over 1 million continue to experience homelessness, learning loss remains a persistent issue, and students need more enrichment opportunities to stay on track to graduate. These impacts can be seen in rising chronic absenteeism rates, climbing reports of disruptive discipline incidents, increasing numbers of dropouts, and declining graduation rates. Finding a cohesive way to respond to all of these challenges is daunting. 

Expanding Evidence-Base for Community Schools 

Luckily, recent stories and evaluations show community schools are a promising way to respond to the negative educational impacts from COVID and broader systemic inequalities. First-hand accounts show community schools are providing mental health care, housing support, educational enrichment, and expanded learning opportunities to help students succeed. A national evaluation and a review of 143 studies indicate these stories are more than anecdotal, showing community schools can reduce chronic absenteeism, decrease suspensions, improve school climate, and improve graduation rates. Even more promising news is documented in a new book about the community schools movement, which details how extended implementation has resulted in increased enrollment, and sustained improvements in academic achievement. 

Growing Nationwide Support for Community Schools 

Given the positive impacts of community schools, it is unsurprising support for community schools is growing in different areas and at multiple levels. Urban cities (e.g., Baltimore, Cincinnati, Detroit, D.C., Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia,) and rural communities (e.g., Deer River, MN, Kern County, CA, Taos, NM, Quitman County, MS) have all launched or expanded their implementation of community schools since 2020. During the same time, red states and blue states—including Georgia, California, Florida, Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland, New Mexico, New York, and Vermont also increased funding or built capacity in their own versions of community schools. Even at the federal level, funding for the Full-Service Community School program doubled under President Trump and President Biden.

The Future of Community Schools 

With the momentum of money and focus behind community schools, expansion might seem inevitable, however, policymakers can do more. In September 2024, states and districts will be required by law to allocate the remainder of the almost $200 billion in COVID-relief funding they received to help address the disruptions to education caused by the pandemic. 

Investing any remaining relief funding in key community school infrastructure would be fiscally responsible and socially beneficial. This is because every dollar invested in community school coordinators can provide $7 in return, and the same investment in the common practices or pillars of community schools mentioned above, can return $15 of social and economic value. 

More importantly, policymakers should set up systems and structures to make new or keep current investments in community schools going after ARP funds run out. For instance, policymakers can: 

A review of influential moments in American education history shows continued efforts to help all students access high-quality learning opportunities (e.g., offering reduced-priced meals, special education services, and subsidies for low-income schools.) Ensuring all students have access to community schools can continue this trend and mark the next milestone for U.S. education.

The Federation of American Scientists values diversity of thought and believes that a range of perspectives — informed by evidence — is essential for discourse on scientific and societal issues. Contributors allow us to foster a broader and more inclusive conversation. We encourage constructive discussion around the topics we care about.

The Missing Data for Systemic Improvements to U.S. Public School Facilities

Peter Drucker famously said, “You can’t improve what you don’t measure.” Data on facilities helps public schools to make equitable decisions, prevent environmental health risks, ensure regular maintenance, and conduct long-term planning. Publicly available data increases transparency and accountability, resulting in more informed decision making and quality analysis. Across the U.S., public schools lack the resources to track their facilities and operations, resulting in missed opportunities to ensure equitable access to high quality learning environments. As public schools face increasing challenges to infrastructure, such as climate change, this data gap becomes more pronounced.

Why do we need data on school facilities?

School facilities affect student health and learning. The conditions of a school building directly impact the health and learning outcomes of students. The COVID-19 pandemic brought the importance of indoor air quality into the public consciousness. Many other chronic diseases are exacerbated by inadequate facilities, causing absenteeism and learning loss. From asthma to obesity to lead poisoning, the condition of the places where children spend their time impacts their health, wellbeing, and ability to learn. Better data on the physical environment helps us understand the conditions that hinder student learning. 

School buildings are a source of emissions and environmental impacts. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reports that schools annually spend $8 billion on energy, and emit an estimated 72 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. While the energy use intensity of school buildings is not itself that high when compared with other sectors, there are interesting trends such as education being the largest consumer of natural gas. The public school fleet is the largest mass transit system in the U.S. As of 2023 only 1-2% of the countries estimated nearly 500,000 buses are electric. 

Data provides accountability for public investment. After highways, elementary and secondary education infrastructure is the leading public capital outlay expenditure nationwide (2021 Census). Most funds to maintain school facilities come from local and state tax sources. Considering the sizable taxpayer investment, relatively little is known about the condition of these facilities. Some state governments have no school facilities staff or funding to help manage or improve school facilities. The 2021 State of Our Schools Report, the leading resource on school facilities data, uses fiscal data to highlight the issues in school facilities. This report found that there is a $85 billion annual school facilities infrastructure funding gap, meaning that, according to industry standards for both capital investment and maintenance, schools are funded $85 billion less than what is required for upkeep. Consistent with these findings, the U.S. Government Accountability Office conducted research on school building common facilities issues and found that, in 2020, 50% of districts needed to replace or update multiple essential building systems such as HVAC or plumbing. 

What data do we need?

Despite the clear connections between students’ health, learning, and the condition of school buildings, there are no standardized national data sets that assist school leaders and policy makers in making informed and strategic decisions to systematically improve facilities to support health and learning. 

Some examples of data points school facilities advocates want more of include:

Getting strategic and accessible with facilities data

Gathering this type of data represents a significant challenge for schools that are already overburdened and lack the administrative support for facilities maintenance and operations. By supporting the best available facilities research methods, facilities conditions standards, and dedicating resources to long term planning, we ensure that data collection is undertaken equitably. Some strategies that bear these challenges in mind are:

Incorporate facilities into existing data collection and increase data linkages in integrated and high quality data centers like National Center for Education Statistics. School leaders should provide key facilities metrics through the same mechanisms by which they report other education statistics. Creating data linkages allow users to make connections using existing data.    

Building capacity ensures that there are staff and support systems in place to effectively gather and process school facilities data. There are more federal funds than ever before offered for building the capacity of schools to improve facilities conditions. For instance, the U.S. Department of Education recently launched the Supporting America’s School Infrastructure grant program, aimed at developing the ability of state departments of education to address facilities matters.    

Research how school facilities are connected to environmental justice to better understand how resources could be most equitably distributed. Ten Strands and UndauntedK12 are piloting a framework which looks at pollution burden indicators and school adoption of environmental and climate action. We can support policies and fund research that looks at this intersection and makes these connections more transparent.

The connection between school facilities and student health and learning outcomes is clear. What we need now are the resources to effectively collect more data on school facilities that can be used by policy makers and school leaders to plan, improve learning conditions, and provide accountability to the public. 

The Federation of American Scientists values diversity of thought and believes that a range of perspectives — informed by evidence — is essential for discourse on scientific and societal issues. Contributors allow us to foster a broader and more inclusive conversation. We encourage constructive discussion around the topics we care about.

Increasing Students Opportunity-to-Learn Through Better Data Systems

Research shows that giving students equitable opportunities to learn requires access to key inputs. These include, at a minimum: access to qualified, experienced, in-field, and effective teachers; a rich curriculum; adequate funding; support staff; up-to-date facilities; standards-based materials; and technology. Since the 1960s education scholars have argued that federal, state, and local policymakers should use evidence-based opportunity-to-learn (OTL) indicators to inform education improvement processes and decisions about educator recruitment and retention, targeted student-centered programming, and equitable resource allocation. The current availability of district-level relief funds, the restarting of state accountability systems, and a possible reauthorization of the federal Education Sciences Reform Act (ESRA), are unique policy openings for education leaders to innovate using OTL indicators, incorporate promising practices from existing reporting systems, and establish place-based measures that fit local needs.

Challenge and Opportunity

COVID-19 placed an enormous burden on our education system. Lost instruction, student absences, teacher shortages, school discipline, and the wavering mental health of our nation’s youth have all made headlines since the pandemic began. To address these challenges, policymakers, educators, parents, and community members need multiple data points—in addition to test scores—to both identify achievement and opportunity gaps and spotlight successful models. 

Luckily, a 2019 National Academies of Sciences study, in addition to several resources from the Department of Education and policy experts, demonstrate how OTL indicators can inform school, district, and systems-wide improvement. According to Stephen Elliot and Brendan Bartlett, OTL indicators “generally refer to inputs and processes within a school context necessary for producing student achievement of intended outcomes.” Such indicators can include those identified by the National Academies of Sciences in Table 1 and may also incorporate other indicators of school conditions and outcomes. When states, districts, and schools use various combinations of OTL indicators and disaggregate them by student subgroup, they can more accurately gauge and purposefully increase students’ opportunities to learn.

Table 1. OTL Indicators shared by the National Academies of Sciences
Academic readinessSelf-regulation skills
School engagementCourse performance
Test performanceOn-time graduation
Postsecondary readinessRacial, ethnic, and economic segregation
Access to high-quality pre-K programsEffective teaching
Rigorous courseworkCurricular breadth
Academic supportsSchool climate
Non-exlusionary discipline practicesIntegrated student support services
Source: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2019. Monitoring Educational Equity. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25389.

OTL indicators can also provide information about the nature of the teaching and learning opportunities states, districts, and schools make available to students across the country. For example, if a state’s curriculum frameworks and assessments outline standards for science or career and technical education that requires laboratory work, computers, specialized courses, and teaching expertise—states and districts should know whether students have access to these resources.

Federal and Expert Support for OTL Indicators

Over the past two years the Department of Education (ED) released two key resources supporting OTL implementation:

Table 2. OTL Indicators shared by the Department of Education
Student chronic absenteeism ratesStudent discipline rates (e.g., in-and out-of-school suspensions, expulsions)
Data from student, staff and family surveysAccess to integrated support services (e.g., ratio of students to nurses, counselors, social workers)
Educator certification (e.g., National Board Certification) Educator experience
Educator effectiveness Educator chronic absenteeism and turnover rates
Educator supports (e.g., mentors, induction programs, professional development) Home and school Internet access and student device ratios (e.g., 1:1)
Quality of remote learning Educator access to PD for the effective use of technology
Advanced course participation and completion Culturally and linguistically responsive curriculum designs
Using diagnostic assessments Access to project-based, experiential learning opportunities
Source: U.S. Department of Education. (2021) ED COVID-19 Handbook Volume 2: Roadmap to Reopening Safely and Meeting All Students’ Needs.

In addition, several organizations released OTL-related resources describing different indicators and how they are being used to support student achievement. For example:

Ideas to Use Data to Increase Opportunities to Learn

Taken together, the resources above from ED and policy experts can facilitate the following local, state, and federal actions to increase the use of OTL indicators.

Supporting Student Opportunity to Learn through Local Data Systems

States and districts have broad flexibility to use American Rescue Plan Act funds to support student achievement—including “developing and implementing procedures and systems to improve the preparedness and response efforts of local educational agencies.” These systems could arguably include building data collection and reporting infrastructure to track OTL indicators, monitor student progress, and respond with evidence-based interventions. Instead of starting from scratch, states and districts can pull best practices from existing cradle-to-career models such as the Schott Foundation’s Loving Cities Index, or StriveTogether which track various forms of OTL data from a student’s early years (e.g., kindergarten readiness) through their entry into career paths (e.g., postsecondary enrollment).  School Systems can also adapt aspects of OTL indicators to show how they are meeting the needs of their students. For example, Houston Independent School District has an ESSER Spending Dashboard showing how much funding has been spent on educators, support staff, tutors, devices, programming, and physical health. 

Supporting Student Opportunity to Learn through State Accountability and Improvement and Reporting Systems  

At the state level, policymakers can help advance OTL indicators by using flexibility included in the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) and further described by ED’s 2022 accountability guidance. For example, ESSA requires states to add at least one indicator of “school quality or student success” to their accountability systems. A number of states have responded by adding indicators of college and career readiness, extended-year graduation rates, suspension rates, school climate, and chronic absenteeism, which all provide information about the broader set of outcomes and opportunities that shape student achievement. For example, the District of Columbia amended its ESSA plan in 2022 to include academic growth, access to dual enrollment courses, and a five-year graduation rate. Many states also represent OTL data in accessible formats such as the school data dashboard in California, a parent dashboard in New York, School and District Profiles in Oregon, and school climate survey reports in Illinois. 

Supporting Student Opportunity to Learn through State and Federal Grant Programs

State and federal governments can also incorporate OTL indicators into reporting metrics for grantees. Specifically, state and federal government can solicit feedback on which indicators are most helpful to each program through public notices. By developing equity-centered measures with researchers, policymakers, and practitioners, federal agencies can help grantees build lasting data systems for reporting and continuous improvement. For example, the Full-Service Community School grant program went through negotiated rulemaking to reshape the program’s priorities and drew from suggestions submitted by policy experts to incorporate 13 reporting metrics for new grantees. To help make the collection less burdensome, agencies can also provide technical assistance and release guidance with existing data sources, best practices, and examples.

Supporting Student Opportunity to Learn through Education Sciences Reform Act (ESRA) Implementation and Reauthorization 

The federal government can help states and districts close opportunity gaps by assisting in the collection, reporting, validation, disaggregation, and analysis of OTL data through ESRA-funded programs. For example, states and districts can leverage technical assistance and research dissemination through the Regional Educational Laboratories (RELs), creating resources and providing further support through the Comprehensive Centers Program, and equipping the Statewide Longitudinal Data System (SLDS) program to aid in building state and local capacity in measuring students’ opportunity to learn. Officials at the Institute for Education Sciences (IES) can also point states and districts to existing models such as Kentucky’s Longitudinal Data System and Washington’s Indicators of Education System Health, which incorporate data across a student’s academic continuum to inform policy and practice. 

Conclusion

If state and local leaders are committed to supporting the “whole child,” then they need more than just outcome-based measures such as test scores or graduation rates (i.e., outputs). So much happens before students take a test or graduate. To improve outcomes, students, parents, teachers, and education stakeholders need better information about factors that contribute to student learning (i.e., inputs). For years federal, state, and local leaders have been assessing our students mainly to find the same persistent achievement gaps, which correlate heavily with race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Expanding the use of OTL indicators also assess our federal, state, and local systems so they can find new opportunities for students to learn. 

Moving the Nation: The Role of Federal Policy in Promoting Physical Activity

Physical activity is one of the most powerful tools for promoting health and wellbeing. Movement is not only medicine—effective at treating a range of physical and mental health conditions—but it is also preventive medicine, because movement reduces the risk for many conditions ranging from cancer and heart disease to depression and Alzheimer’s disease. But rates of physical inactivity and sedentary behavior have remained high in the U.S. and worldwide for decades.

Engagement in physical activity is impacted by myriad factors that can be viewed from a social ecological perspective. This model views health and health behavior within the context of a complex interplay between different levels of influence, including individual, interpersonal, institutional, community, and policy levels. When it comes to healthy behavior such as physical activity, sustainable change is considered most likely when these levels of influence are aligned to support change. Every level of influence on physical activity within a social-ecological framework is directly or indirectly affected by federal policy, suggesting physical activity policy has the potential to bring about substantial changes in the physical activity habits of Americans. 

Every level of influence on physical activity within a social-ecological framework is directly or indirectly affected by federal policy, suggesting physical activity policy has the potential to bring about substantial changes in the physical activity habits of Americans.
FIGURE 1. Adapted from Heise, L., Elisberg, M., & Gottemoeller, M. (1999)

Why are federal physical activity policies needed?

Physical inactivity is recognized as a public health issue, having widespread impacts on health, longevity, and even the economy. Similar to other public health issues over past decades such as sanitation and tobacco use, federal policies may be the best way to coordinate large-scale changes involving cooperation between diverse sectors, including health care, transportation, environment, education, workplace, and urban planning. An active society requires the infrastructure, environment, and resources that promote physical activity. Federal policies can meet those needs by improving access, providing funding, establishing regulations, and developing programs to empower all Americans to move more. Policies also play an important role in removing barriers to physical activity, such as financial constraints and lack of safe spaces to move, that contribute to health disparities. With such a variety of factors impacting active lifestyles, physical activity policies must have inter-agency involvement to be effective.

What physical activity initiatives exist currently?

Analysis of publicly available information revealed that there are a variety of initiatives currently in place at the federal level, across several departments and agencies, aimed at increasing physical activity levels in the U.S. Information about each initiative was evaluated for their correspondence with levels of the social-ecological model, as summarized in the table. Note that it is possible the search that was conducted did not identify every relevant effort, thus there could be additional initiatives that are not included below.

Given the large number of groups with the shared goal of increasing physical activity in the nation, a memorandum of understanding (MOU) may help to promote coordination of goals and implementation strategies.

FIGURE 2. Agency roles
Department or AgencyExisting or Potential Role
Administration for Children and Families (ACF)ACF’s strategic goals include taking a “preventative and proactive approach to ensuring child, youth, family, and individual well-being.” Physical activity is a powerful preventative and proactive approach.
Administration for Community Living (ACL)ACL’s Health, Wellness, and Nutrition program addresses behavioral health, prevention of injuries and illness, and chronic disease self-management for aging and disability populations, all of which relate to physical activity, though physical activity is not directly addressed in the program’s goals.
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)AHRQ moves scientific evidence into practice to help healthcare systems and professionals deliver care that is high quality, safe, accessible, equitable, and affordable, and works to ensure that the scientific evidence is understood and used. AHRQ provides support to the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), which makes recommendations about clinical preventive services including physical activity.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)The CDC conducts research and provides health information to tackle health problems causing death and disability for Americans, put science into action to prevent disease, and promote healthy and safe behaviors, communities and environment. The CDC has several programs focused on physical activity, partnering with other government agencies and departments as well as other organizations, including the Active People, Healthy Nation program and funding initiatives such as the State Physical Activity and Nutrition Program (SPAN 2023), which supports state-level programs to implement evidence-based strategies to address health disparities related to poor nutrition, physical inactivity, and/or obesity.
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid (CMS)CMS’ Behavioral Health Strategy is aimed at increasing access to equitable and high-quality behavioral health services and improving outcomes for people covered by Medicare, Medicaid and private health insurance. CMS could play an important role in providing access to gym memberships and exercise prescriptions for both intervention and prevention. Currently, gym memberships or fitness programs may be included in the extra coverage offered by Medicare Advantage Plans depending on the person’s location. Less commonly, coverage is provided by Medicare Supplement (Medigap) plans. For Medicaid, some states cover gym memberships as part of weight loss initiatives or partner with YMCAs or other community organizations to run health programs.
Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)CEQ and EPA coordinate federal environmental activities and the development of environmental policy, which has a reciprocal beneficial relationship with physical activity. For example, to reduce emission and energy use, climate change policies have been introduced to encourage cycling, walking and other forms of sustainable, active transport. Parks and other green spaces that sequester carbon dioxide also provide space for people to be active. Policies that reduce air pollution help to reduce a barrier to exercising outside.
Department of Agriculture (USDA)The USDA’s strategic priorities include addressing climate change via climate smart agriculture, forestry, and clean energy. Climate, clean air, and spaces for outdoor recreation and camping such as forests are all related to physical activity. The USDA works with the Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, and others to increase physical activity on federal land (hiking, rafting, biking, etc.), and also provides funding for urban forestry, which promotes physical activity in urban areas.
Department of Education (DE)The DE sets guidelines for physical education in schools and has provided funding for research on physical activity in schools, such as the Carol M. White Physical Education Program, which awarded grants from 2001-2015 to Local Education Agencies (LEAs) and community-based organizations (CBOs) to initiate, expand, or enhance physical education programs. The DE could also designate physical education as a core subject and ensure that physical activity is not assigned or withheld as punishment.
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)HUD has an important role in community building and infrastructure. The built environment can support physical activity (e.g., by providing safe spaces for movement). For example, HUD’s Office of Community Planning and Development develops communities by promoting decent housing, suitable living environments, and expanded economic opportunities for low- and moderate-income people. Research shows that receiving HUD housing assistance is associated with higher physical activity levels in low-income Americans. HUD is also involved in the climate action plan.
Department of the Interior (DOI)The DOI manages public lands and minerals, national parks, and wildlife refuges. Within the DOI, the Bureau of Land Management and National Park Service maximize land use, including recreational activities that involve physical activity in outdoor spaces. The National Park Service promotes health and wellness through the Healthy Parks Healthy People initiative, which involves a collaboration with partners and interdisciplinary teams in the sectors of public health, medicine, conservation, and recreation to put a spotlight on the role of parks as social determinant of health.
Department of Transportation (DOT)The DOT promotes physical activity in the public sector through building and maintaining sidewalks or trails, as well as connecting them; reducing car dependency; provide increased opportunities for walking and bicycling; encouraging the creation and implementation of policies to support alternate modes of transportation; providing direct investments to supportive infrastructure such as bicycle lanes, greenways, multi use paths, sidewalks and trails; reducing distances between key destinations and providing and improving bicycle and pedestrian facilities; and installing streetlights. For example, the Safe Routes to School Programs, which promotes safe ways for youth to walk or bike to and from school through the funding of infrastructure (e.g., sidewalks) and educational programs, grew out of these federal funding programs. The DOT and its partner agencies also work to address air and noise pollution and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, to improve opportunities for safe, active, multimodal transportation and reduce dependence on vehicles, such as the Clean Air Act and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) Program.
Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)The VA’s Veterans Health Administration is America’s largest integrated health care system. Their National Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention includes talking to one’s doctor about physical activity as one of their recommended preventive services. The integrated nature of medical care through the VA would promote the implementation of exercise prescriptions to a large and vulnerable population and could serve as a model for more widespread implementation.
Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA)HRSA offers programs to improve access to health care for people who are uninsured, isolated, or medically vulnerable, and funds grants and cooperative agreements related to its mission. Funding related to physical activity is directly related to its strategic goal to “Take actionable steps to achieve health equity and improve public health.”
National Institutes of Health (NIH)As the federal government’s medical research agency, NIH supports physical activity related research in its intramural laboratories and through research funding to scientists at other organizations. Requests for applications (RFAs) and Notices of Special Interest (NOSIs) for exercise-focused research grants can promote continued research on the impacts of physical activity on health.
Office of Minority Health (OMH)The OMH promotes the health of racial and ethnic minority populations through the development of health policies and programs that will help eliminate health disparities. Prevention through physical activity and nutrition is one of OMH’s focus areas, as are clinical conditions including diabetes and hypertension that can be prevented or treated with physical activity.
Office of Personnel Management (OPM)One role of OPM, which oversees human resources for federal employees, is to help federal agencies integrate prevention strategies into their workplace through worksite health and wellness programs and organizational and employee benefits. Examples include encouraging employees to use flexible work schedules (non-duty time) to participate in health promotion activities, allowing employees to request annual leave, leave without pay, or sick leave (as appropriate) to participate in health promotion programs, and providing short periods of excused absence for health promotion programs and activities officially sponsored and administered by the agency.

The work of several agencies and departments within the federal government relates to physical activity promotion. Current initiatives are in place, but there are also opportunities for additional efforts that could further the goal of creating a more active nation.

FIGURE 3. Agency interactions
Department, Agency, or DivisionIndividualInterpersonalOrganizationalCommunityPolicy
Administration for Children and Families (ACF)XX
Administration for Community Living (ACL)XX
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)XXX
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)XX
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid (CMS)XX
Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ)XX
Department of Agriculture (USDA)XX
Department of Education (DE)XX
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)XX
Department of the Interior (DOI)XX
Department of Transportation (DOT)XX
Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)X
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)XX
Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA)XX
National Institutes of Health (NIH)XX
Office of Minority Health (OMH)XXX
Office of Personnel Management (OPM)XX

These and other federal departments and agencies can coordinate action with state and local partners, for example in healthcare, business and industry, education, mass media, and faith-based settings, to implement physical activity policies. 

The CDC’s Active People, Healthy Nation initiative provides an example of this approach. This campaign, launched in 2020, has the goal of helping 27 million Americans become more physically active by 2027. By taking action steps focused on program delivery, partnership engagement, communication, training, and continuous monitoring and evaluation, the campaign seeks to help communities implement evidence-based strategies across sectors and settings to provide equitable and inclusive access to safe spaces for physical activity. According to our analysis, the strategies of the Active People, Healthy Nation initiative are aligned with the social-ecological model. The Physical Activity Policy Research and Evaluation Network, a research partner of the Active People, Healthy Nation initiative, provides an example of coordinating with partners in other sectors to promote physical activity. Through collaboration across sectors, the network brings together diverse partners to put into practice research on environments that maximize physical activity. The network includes work groups focused on equity and inclusion, parks and green space, rural active living, school wellness, transportation policy and planning, and business/industry.

The Biden-Harris Administration National Strategy on Hunger, Nutrition, and Health, announced in September 2022, also includes strategies that are consistent with a social-ecological model. The strategy outlines steps toward the goal of ending hunger and increasing healthy eating and physical activity by 2030 so that fewer Americans will experience diet-related diseases. Pillar 4 of the strategy is to “make it easier for people to be more physically active—in part by ensuring that everyone has access to safe places to be active—increase awareness of the benefits of physical activity, and conduct research on and measure physical activity.” The strategy specifies goals such as building environments that promote physical activity (e.g., connecting people to parks; promoting active transportation and land use policies to support physical activity) and includes a call to action for a whole-of-society response involving the private sector, state, local, and territory governments, schools, and workplaces.

The Congressional Physical Activity Caucus has been active in introducing legislation that can help realize the goals of the current physical activity initiatives. For example, in February 2023, Sen. Sherrod Brown (D-OH), co-chair of the Caucus, introduced the Promoting Physical Activity for Americans Act, a bill that would require the Department of Health and Human Services to continue issuing evidence-based physical-activity guidelines and detailed reports at least every 10 years, including recommendations for population subgroups (e.g., children or individuals with disabilities). In addition, members of the Caucus, along with other members of congress, reintroduced the bipartisan, bicameral Personal Health Investment Today (PHIT) Act in March 2023. This legislation seeks to encourage physical activity by allowing Americans to use a portion of the money saved in their pre-tax health savings account (HSA) and flexible spending account (FSA) toward qualified sports and fitness purchases, such as gym memberships, fitness equipment, physical exercise or activity programs and youth sports league fees. The bill would also allow a medical care tax deduction for up to $1,000 ($2,000 for a joint return or a head of household) of qualified sports and fitness expenses per year.

What progress has been made?

There are signs that some of the national campaigns are leading to changes at other levels of society. For example, 46 cities, towns, and states have passed an Active People, Healthy Nation Proclamation as of September 2023. According to the State Routes Partnership, which develops “report cards” for states based on their policies supporting walking, bicycling, and active kids and communities, many states have shown movement in their policies between 2020 and 2022, such as implementing new policies to support walking and biking and increasing state funding for active transportation. However, more time is needed to determine the extent to which recent initiatives are helping to create a more active country, since most were initiated in the past two or three years. Predating the current initiatives, the overall physical activity level of Americans increased from 2008 to 2018, but there has been little change since that time, and only about one-quarter of adults meet the physical activity guidelines established by the CDC.

Clearly, there is a critical need for concerted effort to implement the strategies outlined in current physical activity initiatives so that national policies have the intended impacts on communities and on individuals. Leveraging provisions in existing legislation related to the social-ecological model of physical activity promotion will also help with implementation. For example, title III-D of the Older Americans Act supports healthy lifestyles and promotes healthy behaviors amongst older adults (age 60 and older), providing funding for evidence-based programs that have been proven to improve health and well-being and reduce disease and injury. Physical activity programs are prime candidates for such funding. In addition, programs under the 2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act are helping to change the current car-dependent transportation network, providing healthier and more sustainable transportation options, including walking, biking, and using public transportation, and are providing investments in environmental programs to improve public health and reduce pollution. For example, states can use funds from the Highway Safety Improvement Program for bicycle and pedestrian highway safety improvement projects, and funding is available through the Carbon Reduction Program for programs that help reduce dependence on single-occupancy vehicles, such as public transportation projects and the construction, planning, and design of facilities for pedestrians, bicyclists, and other non-motorized forms of transportation.

Partnering with non-governmental groups working towards common goals, such as the Physical Activity Alliance, can also help with implementation. The Alliance’s National Physical Activity Plan is based on the socio-ecological model and includes recommendations for evidence-based actions for 10 societal sectors at the national, state, local and institutional levels, with a focus on making change at the community level. The plan shares many priorities with those of the Active People, Healthy Nation initiative, while also introducing new goals, such as establishing a CDC Office of Physical Activity and Health. 

With coordinated action based on established public health models, such as the social-ecological framework, federal policies can be successfully implemented to make the systemic changes that are needed to create a more active nation.

The work for this blog was undertaken before Dr. Dotson joined the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). Dr. Dotson is solely responsible for this blog post’s contents, findings, and conclusions, which do not necessarily represent the views of AHRQ. Readers should not interpret any statement as an official position of AHRQ or of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.