PICTURE: Battle groups and task forces deployed worldwide provide combat power from the sea able to respond rapidly to crisis situations.

rapidly by forcible entry coordinated with strategic airlift and sealift, and pre-positioned forces. Both types of operations demand a versatile mix of forces that are organized, trained, equipped, and poised to respond quickly.
• Opposed operations require a viable forcible entry capability with forces prepared to fight immediately upon entry. Forcible entry is discussed in more detail later in this chapter.

• Unopposed operations may afford an opportunity, following arrival in the operational area, to continue to build combat power, train, rehearse, acclimate, and otherwise establish the conditions for successful operations. In unopposed entry, JFCs control the flow of forces that best facilitates the buildup of forces necessary for the envisioned operations. Logistic capability may be a higher priority than combat capability, which could be initially limited to that needed for protection.

• The protection of forces will often be a friendly center of gravity during early entry operations. Therefore, early entry forces should deploy with sufficient organic and supporting capabilities to preserve their freedom of action and protect personnel and equipment from potential or likely threats.

• JFCs introduce forces in a manner that enables rapid force buildup into the structure required for anticipated operations and simultaneous protection of the force. From a C2 perspective, echelonment is essential. Early entry forces should include the C2 capability to assess the situation, make decisions, and conduct initial operations.

• Operations with allies and coaition members often require a robust liaison and communications capability. Linguists must be capable of communicating warfighting concepts between military forces of diverse cultures. Also, additional sufficient communications equipment may be required for non-US forces to enable interoperable communications.

• JFCs will normally seek to secure air and maritime superiority early in the conduct of joint operations. Air and maritime superiority enable and enhance joint operations in all dimensions. Although air and maritime superiority are not ends in themselves, history shows that control of the sea and/or the air has been a pivotal wartime factor. World War IIþs Operation POINT BLANK established air superiority, which was considered a prerequisite for Operation OVERLORD. The Navy component commander or JFMCC is normally the supported commander for sea control operations, and the JFACC is normally the supported commander for counterair operations.

• Superiority battles are not limited to the air and maritime environments. JFCs seek to achieve superiority immediately in command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence (C4I)--space control is a necessary precursor to this superiority. They seek to lay open the enemyþs intentions, capabilities, and actions to observation and assessment, while simultaneously depriving the enemy of similar information about the friendly force and deceiving the enemy as to the veracity of the information obtained about the friendly force.

• As another example of seeking early superiority before close combat, land commanders may seek to first achieve counterbattery or indirect fire superiority, thereby enhancing protection of their forces. Additionally, JFCs can seek to achieve a mobility differential by selectively attacking key enemy forces and transportation networks to degrade enemy maneuver.

• Also as part of achieving decisive advantages early, joint force operations may be directed immediately against enemy centers of gravity. Where possible, specific operations may be conducted to directly attack strategic centers of gravity by air, missile, special operations, and other deep-ranging capabilities. When air operations constitute the bulk of the capability needed to directly attack enemy strategic centers of gravity or to conduct air superiority operations, JFCs will normally task JFACCs, as supported commanders, to conduct such operations.

• There are several purposes to these attacks. They may in themselves be decisive. If they are not, they begin the offensive operation throughout the enemyþs depth that can cause paralysis and destroy cohesion.

e. Protection. JFCs strive to conserve the fighting potential of the joint force.

• Protection from the Enemyþs Firepower and Maneuver. JFCs counter the enemyþs firepower and maneuver by making personnel, systems, and units difficult to locate, strike, and destroy. They protect their force from enemy maneuver and firepower, including the effects of weapons of mass destruction. Air and maritime superiority operations; air defense; and protection of airports and seaports, LOCs, and friendly force lodgment all contribute to force protection.

  OPSEC and military deception are key elements of protection.

• Health, Welfare, Morale, and Maintenance. JFCs keep personnel healthy and maintain their fighting spirit. This protection includes guarding equipment and supplies from loss or damage. JFCs ensure systems are in place for adequate medical care, quick return of minor casualties to duty, and preventive medicine. Joint Pb 4-02, "Doctrine for Health Service Support in Joint Operations," discusses health support for joint operations.

• Safety. JFCs make safety an integral part of all joint training and operations. Sustained, high-tempo operations put personnel at risk. Command interest, discipline, and training lessen those risks. Safety in training, planning, and operations is crucial to successful combat operations and the preservation of combat power.

• Prevention of Fratricide. JFCs make every effort to reduce the potential for fratricide--the unintentional killing or wounding of friendly personnel by friendly fire. The destructive power and range of modern weapons, coupled with the high intensity and rapid tempo of modern combat, increase the potential for fratricide. Commanders must be aware of those situations that increase the risk of fratricide and institute appropriate preventative measures.

  The primary mechanisms for limiting fratricide are command emphasis, disciplined operations, close coordination among component commands, rehearsals, and enhanced situational awareness. Commanders should seek to minimize the potential for fratricide while not limiting boldness and audacity in combat.

JFCs seek to extend operations throughout the breadth and depth of the operational area. JFCs conduct sustained operations when a "coup de main" is not possible. During sustained operations, JFCs simultaneously employ air, land, sea, space, and SOF. During one major operation, one component or major category of operations, such as air operations, might be the main effort, with others in support. When conditions change, the main effort might shift to another component or function. Strategic attack and interdiction continue throughout to deny the enemy sanctuary or freedom of action. When prevented from concentrating, opponents can be attacked, isolated at tactical and operational levels, and defeated in detail. At other times, JFCs may cause their opponents to concentrate, facilitating their attack by friendly forces.

a. The Relationship Between Offense and Defense

• Although defense may be the stronger form of war, it is the offense that is normally decisive. In striving to achieve strategic objectives most quickly and at least cost, JFCs will normally seek the earliest opportunity to conduct decisive offensive operations.

• Joint operations will normally include elements of both offense and defense. JFCs strive to apply the many dimensions of combat power simultaneously across the depth, breadth, and height of the operational area. To conduct such operations, JFCs normally achieve concentration in some areas or in specific functions and require economy of force in others. During initial entry operations, entry forces may be required to defend while force buildup occurs. Even in sustained offensive operations, selected elements of the joint force may need to pause, defend, resupply, or reconstitute, while other forces continue the attack. Further, force protection includes certain defensive measures throughout the campaign. Commanders at all levels must possess the mental agility to rapidly transition between offense and defense and vice versa.

• The relationship between offense and defense, then, is an enabling one. Defensive operations, where required, enable JFCs to conduct or prepare for decisive offensive operations.

"The full dimensional joint campaign is in major respects 'nonlinear.þ That is, the dominant effects of air, sea, space, and special operations may be felt more or less independently of the front line of ground troops. The impact of these operations on land battles, interacting with the modern dynamics of land combat itself, helps obtain the required fluidity, breadth, and depth of operations. In the same way, land operations can provide or protect critical bases for air, land, sea, and space operations and enable these operations to be supported and extended throughout the theater"

• As technology and doctrines have expanded the lethality, tempo, and depth of operations, the potential for conventional forces to conduct nonlinear operations has increased. Linearity refers primarily to the conduct of operations along lines of operations with identified FLOTs.

  In linear operations, emphasis is placed on maintaining the position of the land force in relation to other friendly forces. From this relative positioning of forces, security is enhanced and massing of forces can be facilitated. Also inherent in linear operations is the security of rear areas, especially LOCs between sustaining bases and fighting forces. World Wars I and II offer multiple examples of linear operations.

• In the land context, nonlinear operations tend to be conducted from selected bases of operations (ashore or afloat), but without clearly defined lines of operations. Because rear areas are likewise not clearly defined, their security as well as that of LOCs are not priority concerns.

  Operation JUST CAUSE is an excellent example of a nonlinear operation. In such an operation, land forces orient more on their assigned objectives (for example, destroying an enemy force or seizing and controlling critical terrain or population centers) and less on their geographic relationship to other friendly forces. Maritime operations, special operations, and the operations of insurgent forces tend to be nonlinear. To protect themselves, individual forces conducting nonlinear operations rely more on situational awareness, mobility advantages, and freedom of action than on mass. Nonlinear operations place a premium on C4I, mobility, and innovative means for sustainment.

d. Maneuver

• The principal purpose of maneuver is to gain positional advantage relative to enemy centers of gravity in order to control or destroy those centers of gravity. The focus of both land and naval maneuver is to render opponents incapable of resisting by shattering their morale and physical cohesion (their ability to fight as an effective, coordinate whole) rather than to destroy them physically through attrition. This condition may be achieved by attacking enemy forces and controlling territory, populations, key waters, and LOCs (in all dimensions). Land and naval maneuver (which includes the action of air assets organic to the surface force) is required to control population, territory, and key waters.

• There are multiple ways to attain positional advantage. A naval expeditionary force with airpower, cruise missile firepower, and amphibious assault capability, within operational reach of enemy centers of gravity, has positional advantage. Land force attack aviation, if able to strike at the opponentþs centers of gravity, also has positional advantage. Maintaining dimensional superiority contributes to positional advantage by facilitating freedom of action.

• Maneuver of forces relative to enemy centers of gravity can be key to the JFCþs campaign or major operation. Maneuver is the means of concentrating forces at decisive points to achieve surprise, psychological shock, and physical momentum. Maneuver may also exploit the effects of massed and/or precision firepower or WMD.

• JFCs consider the contribution of special operations in attaining positional advantage. Through special reconnaissance, direct action, or support of insurgent forces, SOF may expose vulnerabilities and attack the enemy at tactical, operational, and strategic levels.

• At all levels of war, successful maneuver requires not only fire and movement but also agility and versatility of thought, plans, operations, and organizations. It requires designating and then, if necessary, shifting the main effort and applying the principles of mass and economy of force.
  • At the strategic level, deploying units to and positioning units within an operational area are forms of maneuver if such movement seeks to gain positional advantage. Strategic maneuver should place forces in position to begin the phases or major operations of a campaign.

  • At the operational level, maneuver is a means by which JFCs set the terms of battle by time and location, decline battle, or exploit existing situations. Operational maneuver usually takes large forces from a base of operations to an area where they are in position to achieve operational objectives. As shown by USCINCCENTþs concept of operations in Operation DESERT STORM, the ability to maneuver must be a trait not only of combat forces but also of the logistic resources that support them.

  • Once deployed into battle formations into the operational area, maneuver is typically considered tactical in nature.

• The concept for maneuver, both naval and and, needs to be articulated in the JFC's concept of operations includes timing, sequencing, and method and location of entry into the operational area. Types of joint force maneuvers include forcible entry, sustained action at sea and from the sea, and sustained action on land.

• Forcible Entry
  • Forcible entry is seizing and holding a military lodgment in the face of armed opposition. In many situations, forcible entry is the only method for gaining access into the operational area or for introducing decisive forces into the region. Forcible entry capabilities give JFCs unique opportunities for altering the nature of the situation, such as the opportunity for gaining the initiative at the outset of combat operations. Forcible entry operations can strike directly at enemy centers of gravity and can open new avenues for military operations. Forcible entry operations can horizontally escalate the operation, exceeding the enemyþs capability to respond. For more information, see Joint Pubs 3-02, "Joint Doctrine for Amphibious Operations," and 3-18, "Joint Doctrine for Forcible Entry Operations."

  • Forcible entry operations are normally joint operations and may include airborne, amphibious, and air assault operations, or any combination thereof. Subordinate joint and Service publications provide details on these operations.

  • Forcible entry is normally complex and risky. These operations require detailed intelligence and unity of effort. Forces are tailored for the mission and echeloned to permit simultaneous deployment and employment. Forcible entry forces need to be prepared to fight immediately upon arrival and require robust C4I capabilities to move with forward elements.

  • OPSEC and deception are critical to successful forcible entry. Forcible entry relies on speed and surprise and is almost always employed in coordination with special operations. Forcible entry usually requires support from naval gunfire and/or aviation assets. Follow-on forces need to be prepared to expand the operation, sustain the effort, and accomplish the mission.

  • SOF may precede forcible entry forces to identify, clarify, and modify conditions in the area of the lodgment.

    SOF may conduct the assaults to seize small, initial lodgments such as airfields or ports. They may provide fire support and conduct other operations in support of the forcible entry. They may conduct special reconnaissance and interdiction operations well beyond the lodgment.

  • The sustainment requirements and challenges for forcible entry operations can be formidable, but must not be allowed to become such an overriding concern that the forcible entry operation itself is jeopardized. JFCs carefully balance the introduction of logistic forces needed to support initial combat with combat forces required to establish, maintain, and protect the lodgment.

  • Forcible entry has been conducted throughout the history of the Armed Forces of the United States. Forcible entry is usually a complex operation and should therefore be kept as simple as possible in concept. Schemes of maneuver and coordination between forces need to be clearly understood by all participants. When airborne, amphibious, and air assault operations are combined, unity of effort is vital. Rehearsals are a critical part of preparation for forcible entry.

  ______________________________________________________ Operation JUST CAUSE In the early morning hours of 20 December 1989, the Commander in Chief, US Southern Command, JTF Panama, conducted multiple, simultaneous forcible entry operations to begin Operation JUST CAUSE. By parachute assault, forces seized key lodgments at Torrijos-Tocumen Military Airfield and International Airport and at the Panamanian Defense Force (PDF) base at Rio Hato. The JTF used these lodgments for force buildup and to launch immediate assaults against the PDF. The JTF commander synchronized the forcible entry operations with numerous other operations involving virtually all capabilities of the joint force. The parachute assault forces strategically deployed at staggered times from CONUS bases, some in C-141 Starlifters, others in slower C-130 transport planes. One large formation experienced delays from a sudden ice storm at the departure airfield--its operations and timing were revised in the air. H-hour was even adjusted for assault operations because of intelligence that indicated a possible compromise. SOF reconnaissance and direct action teams provided last-minute information on widely dispersed targets. At H-hour the parachute assault forces, forward-deployed forces, SOF, and air elements of the joint force simultaneously attacked 27 targets--most of them in the vicinity of the Panama Canal Zone. Illustrating that JFCs organize and apply force in a manner that fits the situation, the JTF commander employed land and SOFs to attack strategic targets and stealth aircraft to attack tactical and operational-level targets. The forcible entry operations, combined with simultaneous and follow-on attack against enemy C2 facilities and key units, seized the initiative and paralyzed enemy decisionmaking. Most fighting was concluded within 24 hours. Casualties were minimized. It was a classic coup de main. ___________________________________________________________

• JFCs and their staffs should be familiar with Service doctrine on land and naval maneuver.

• Interdiction is a powerful tool for JFCs. Interdiction diverts, disrupts, delays, or destroys the enemyþs surface military potential before it can be used effectively against friendly forces. Interdiction-capable forces include land- and sea-based fighter and attack aircraft and bombers; ships and submarines; conventional airborne, air assault, or other ground maneuver forces; SOF; amphibious raid forces; surface-to-surface, subsurface-to-surface, and air-to-surface missiles, rockets, munitions, and mines; artillery and naval gunfire; attack helicopters; EW systems; antisatellite weapons; and space-based satellite systems or sensors. The JFACC is the supported commander for the JFCþs overall air interdiction effort.

• Interdiction-capable commanders require access to C2 systems able to take advantage of real and near real time intelligence. Such intelligence is particularly useful in dealing with targets of near or immediate effect on surface forces or whose location was not previously known with sufficient accuracy.

• Interdiction operations can be conducted by many elements of the joint force and can have tactical, operational, and strategic effects. Air, land, sea, space, and special operations forces can conduct interdiction operations as part of their larger or overall mission. For example, naval expeditionary forces charged with seizing and securing a lodgment along a coast may include the interdiction of opposing air, land, and naval forces as part of the overall amphibious plan.

  ___________________________________________________________
  BATTLE OF THE BISMARCK SEA
  2-4 March 1943

  The Battle of the Bismarck Sea is an outstanding example of the application of firepower at the operational level--in this case, air interdiction.

  During the first part of 1943, the Japanese high command attempted to establish a line of defense in the Southwest Pacific, to run from Northeast New Guinea, through New Britain to the northern Solomon Islands. After a defeat at Wau, New Guinea (the intended right flank of this line), the Japanese command at Rabaul decided to reinforce its garrison at Lae, in the Huon Gulf of New Guinea. Relying on inclement weather to cover its move, a convoy of 8 destroyers and 8 transports carrying over 8,700 personnel and extensive cargo departed Rabaul at midnight of 28 February.

  General MacArthurþs Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA) intelligence had identified the likelihood of this reinforcement. Lieutenant General George C. Kenneyþs Allied Air Forces, SWPA, had stepped up long-range reconnaissance, forward positioning of air forces, and training in low-level strikes against shipping.

  Late on 1 March the convoy was spotted moving westward off the northern coast of New Britain. Early on 2 March Lieutenant General Kenneyþs air forces attacked as the convoy was moving into the Dampier Strait. Multiple formations of B-17s attacked throughout the day, sinking two transports and damaging several others. By the morning of 3 March the convoy was nearing the Huon Peninsula on New Guinea. It was now within range of all of Kenneyþs Papuan- based aircraft. Clearing midmorning skies exposed the convoy. In a synchronized attack, 13 B-17 heavy bombers, 31 B-25 medium bombers, 12 A-20 light bombers, 28 P-38 fighters, and 13 Australian Beufighters unleashed their firepower on the vulnerable Japanese ships. The attack continued throughout the day as more planes roared off the Moresby and Milne runways to join the fight. Before nightfall, over 330 allied aircraft had participated and, except for 4 destroyers that had fled to the north, all ships were sunk, sinking, or badly damaged. During the night and the next day, bombers and PT boats finished the job.

  MacArthur was jubilant. His press release stated, in part, "Our decisive success cannot fail to have the most important results on the enemyþs strategic and tactical plans. His campaign, for the time being at least, is completely dislocated." Looking back on SWPA operations, MacArthur, in 1945, still regarded the Battle of the Bismarck Sea as "the decisive aerial engagement" of the war in his theater. The Japanese high command was shocked and aborted its second projected offensive against Wau, New Guinea. By relying on Kenneyþs aggressive airmen, MacArthur demonstrated the major impact of interdiction on a theater campaign. ___________________________________________________________

• For more discussion of joint interdiction operations, refer to Joint Pub 3-03, "Doctrine for Joint Interdiction Operations."

• Synchronizing interdiction and maneuver (both land and sea) provides one of the most dynamic concepts available to the joint force. Interdiction and maneuver should not be considered separate operations against a common enemy, but rather complementary operations designed to achieve the JFCþs campaign objectives. Moreover, maneuver by land or naval forces can be conducted to interdict enemy surface potential. Potential responses to synchronized maneuver and interdiction can create an agonizing dilemma for the enemy. If the enemy attempts to counter the maneuver, enemy forces can be exposed to unacceptable losses from interdiction. If the enemy employs measures to reduce such interdiction losses, enemy forces may not be able to counter the maneuver. The synergy achieved by integrating and synchronizing interdiction and maneuver assists commanders in optimizing leverage at the operational level.

• As a guiding principle, JFCs should exploit the flexibility inherent in joint force command relationships, joint targeting procedures, and other techniques to resolve the issues that can arise from the relationship between interdiction and maneuver. When maneuver is employed, JFCs need to carefully balance doctrinal imperatives that may be in tension, including the needs of the maneuver force and the undesirability of fragmenting theater/JOA air assets. The JFCþs objectives, intent, and priorities, reflected in mission assignments and coordinatng arrangements, enable subordinates to exploit fully the military potential of their forces while minimizing the friction generated by competing requirements. Effective targeting procedures in the joint force also alleviate such friction. As an example, interdiction requirements will often exceed interdiction means, requiring JFCs to prioritize requirements. Land and naval force commanders responsible for synchronizing maneuver and interdiction within their AOs should be knowledgeable of JFC priorities. Component commanders aggressively seek the best means to accomplish assigned missions. JFCs alleviate this friction through clear statements of intent for theater/JOA-level interdiction (that is, interdiction effort conducted relatively independent of surface maneuver operations). In doing this, JFCs rely on their vision as to how the major elements of the joint force contribute to accomplishing strategic objectives. The campaign concept articulates that vision. JFCs then employ a flexible range of techniques to assist in identifying requirements and applying resources to meet them. JFCs define appropriate command relationships, establish effective joint targeting procedures, and make apportionment decisions.

• Interdiction is not limited to any particular region of the joint battle, but generally is conducted forward of or at a distance from friendly forces. Interdiction may be planned to create advantages at any level from tactical to strategic with corresponding impacts on the enemy and the speed with which interdiction affects front-line enemy forces. Interdiction deep in the enemyþs rear area can have broad theater strategic or operational effects; however, deep interdiction normally has a delayed effect on land and naval combat which will be a direct concern to the JFC. Interdiction closer to land and naval combat will be of more immediate operational and tactical concern to maneuver forces. Thus, JFCs vary the emphasis upon interdiction operations and surface maneuvers depending on the strategic and operational situation confronting them.

• JFCs may choose to employ interdiction as a principal means to achieve the intended objective (with other components supporting the component leading the interdiction effort).

• Where maneuver is part of the JFCþs concept, JFCs may synchronize that maneuver and interdiction. For the joint force campaign level, JFCs synchronize maneuver and interdiction to present the enemy with the dilemma previously discussed. Indeed, JFCs may employ a scheme of maneuver that enhances interdiction operations or vice versa. For instance, actual or threatened maneuver can force an enemy to respond by attempting rapid maneuver or resupply. These reactions can provide excellent and vulnerable targets for interdiction.

• All commanders should consider how their capabilities and operations can complement interdiction in achieving campaign objectives and vice versa. These operations may include actions such as deception operations, withdrawals, lateral repositioning, and flanking movements that are likely to cause the enemy to reposition surface forces making them better targets for interdiction.

• Likewise, interdiction operations need to conform to and enhance the JFCþs scheme of maneuver during the campaign. JFCs need to properly integrate maneuver and interdiction operations to place the enemy in the operational dilemma of either defending from disadvantageous positions or exposing forces to interdiction strikes during attempted repositioning.

• JFCs are responsible for the conduct of theater/JOA operations. To facilitate these operations, JFCs may establish boundaries within the theater/JOA for the conduct of operations. Within the joint force theater of operations, all missions must contribute to the accomplishment of the overall objective. Synchronization of efforts within land or naval AOs is of particular importance.
  • Land and naval commanders are directly concerned with those enemy forces and capabilities that can affect their near-term operations (current operations and those required to facilitate future operations). Accordingly, that part of interdiction with a near-term effect on land and naval maneuver normally supports that maneuver to enable the land or naval commander to achieve the JFCþs objectives. In fact, successful operations may depend on successful interdiction operations, for instance, to isolate the battle or weaken the enemy force before battle is fully joined.

  • The size, shape, and positioning of land or naval force AOs will be established by JFCs based on their concept of operations and the land or naval force commanderþs requirement for depth to maneuver rapidly and to fight at extended ranges. Within these AOs, land and naval operational force commanders are designated the supported commander and are responsible for the synchronization of maneuver, fires, and interdiction. To facilitate this synchronization, such commanders designate the target priority, effects, and timing of interdiction operations within their AOs.

  • The supported commander should articulate clearly the vision of maneuver operations to those commanders that apply interdiction forces within the supported commanderþs boundaries to attack the designated interdiction targets or objectives. The supported commanders should clearly state how they envision interdiction enabling or enhancing their maneuver operations and what they want to accomplish with interdiction (as well as those actions they want to avoid, such as the destruction of key transportation nodes or the use of certain munitions in a specific area). However, supported commanders should provide supporting commanders as much latitude as possible in the planning and execution of their operations.

  • Once they understand what the supported commanders want to accomplish and what they want to avoid, interdiction- capable commanders can normally plan and execute their operations with only that coordination required with supported commanders.

  • Joint force operations in maritime areas often require a higher degree of coordination among commanders because of the highly specialized nature of some naval operations, such as submarine and mine warfare. This type of coordination requires that the interdiction-capable commander maintain communication with the naval commander. As i all operations, lack of close coordination among commanders in naval operating areas can result in fratricide and failed missions, especially in those areas adjacent to naval forces. The same principle applies concerning joint force air component mining operations in areas where land or naval forces may maneuver.

• Interdiction target priorities within the land or naval force boundaries are considered along with theater/JOA-wide interdiction priorities by JFCs and reflected in the apportionment decision. The JFACC will use these priorities to plan and execute the theater/JOA-wide interdiction effort.
  • JFCs need to pay particular attention to, and give priority to, activities impinging on and supporting the maneuver of all forces. In addition to normal target nomination procedures, JFCs establish procedures through which land or naval force commanders can specifically identify those interdiction targets they are unable to strike with organic assets within their boundaries that could affect planned or ongoing maneuver. These targets may be identified, individually or by category, specified geographically, and/or tied to desired effects and time periods. The purpose of these procedures is to afford added visibility to, and allow JFCs to give priority to, targets directly affecting planned maneuver by land or naval forces.

h. Joint Fire Support. Joint fire support includes those fires that assist land and amphibious forces to maneuver and control territory, populations, and key waters. Joint fire support can include the lethal or destructive operations of close air suppor (by both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft), naval gunfire, artillery, mortars, rockets, and missiles, as well as nonlethal or disruptive operations such as EW. Joint Pub 3-09, "Doctrine for Joint Fire Support," provides additional information and guidance.

i. Combat Assessment

• With the increasing complexity of modern warfare and its effects, the traditional bomb damage assessment has evolved through battle damage assessment (BDA) to combat assessment (CA). CA is the determination of the overall effectivenes of force employment during military operations. BDA is one of the principle subordinate elements of CA.

• At the JFC level, the CA effort should be a joint program, supported at all levels, designed to determine if the required effects on the adversary envisioned in the campaign plan are being achieved by the joint force components to meet the JFCþs overall concept. The intent is to analyze with sound military judgment what is known about the damage inflicted on the enemy to try to determine: what physical attrition the adversary has suffered; what effect the efforts have had on the adversaryþs plans or capabilities; and what, if any, changes or additional efforts need to take place to meet the objectives of the current major operations or phase of the campaign. CA requires constant information flows from all sources and should support all sections of the JFC staff and components.

• CA is done at all levels in the joint force. JFCs should establish a dynamic system to support CA for all components. Normally, the joint force J-3 will be responsible for coordinating CA, assisted by the joint force J-2.

• JFCs apportion joint force reconnaissance assets to support the CA intelligence effort that exceeds the organic capabilities of the component forces. The component commanders identify their requirements and coordinate them with the joint force J-3 or designated representative.

a. Depending on the situation, JFCs may conduct operations in the littoral to achieve or support joint force objectives. The littoral area contains two parts. First is the seaward area from the open ocean to the shore, which must be controlled to support operations ashore. Second is the landward area inland from the shore that can be supported and defended directly from the sea. Control of the littoral area is often essential to dimensional superiority. Naval operations in the littoral can provide for the seizure of an adversaryþs port, naval base, or coastal air base to allow entry of other elements of the joint force.

b. Controlled littorals often offer the best positions from which to begin, sustain, and support joint operations, especially in operational areas with poor infrastructure for supporting operations ashore. Sea-based airpower and sea-launched land combat power are formidable tools that JFCs can use to gain and maintain initiative. Naval forces operating in littoral areas can dominate coastal areas to mass forces rapidly and generate high intensity offensive power at times and in locations required by JFCs. Naval forcesþ relative freedom of action enables JFCs to position these capabilities where they can readily strike opponents. Naval forcesþ very presence, if made known, can pose a threat that the enemy cannot ignore.

c. Even when joint forces are firmly established ashore, littoral operations provide JFCs with excellent opportunities to achieve leverage over the enemy by operational maneuver from the sea. Such operations can introduce significant size forces over relatively great distances in short periods of time into the rear or flanks of the enemy. The mobility

PICTURE: Destroyers can provide a dominating presence, which joint force commanders can use in the littoral area to achieve objects.

d. JFCs can operate from a headquarters platform at sea. Depending on the nature of the joint operations, a naval commander can serve as the JFC or function as a JFACC while the operation is primarily maritime, and shift that command ashore if the operation shifts landward in accordance with the JFCþs concept of operations. In other cases, a naval headquarters may serve as the base of the joint force headquarters, or an other- than-naval JFC may use C4I facilities aboard ship. Naval air and missile defense can project that coverage inland, during both entry operations and sustained operations ashore.

e. Transferring C2 from sea to shore requires coordination throughout the joint force in order to maintain uninterrupted C2 for current operations. Such a transition may involve a simple movement of flags and supporting personnel, or it may require a complete change of joint force headquarters. The new joint force headquarters may use personnel and equipment, especially communications equipment, from the old headquarters, or it may require augmentation from different sources. One technique is to transfer C2 in several stages. Another technique is for the JFC to satellite off the capabilties of one of the components ashore until the new headquarters is fully prepared. Whichever way the transition is done, staffs should develop detailed checklists to address all of the C2 requirements and the timing of transfer of each. The value of joint training in this transition is evident.

5. Operations When Weapons of Mass Destruction are Employed

a. As WMD proliferate, the likelihood of their use against friendly forces increases not only in war but also in operations other than war. An enemyþs use of such weapons can quickly change the nature of a campaign, perhaps even affecting the combatant commanderþs strategic objectives. The use or the threat of use of these weapons can cause large-scale shifts in strategic and operational objectives, phases, and COAs. Thus, planning for the possibility of both friendly and enemy use is important to campaign design.

b. It may not be the sheer killing power of these weapons that represents the greatest effect. It is the strategic, operational, psychological, and political impacts of their use that can affect strategic objectives and campaign design.

c. The effective combination of conventional offensive and defensive operations can help reduce the effectiveness or success of an enemyþs use of WMD. Offensive measures include raids, strikes, and operations designed to locate and neutralize the threat of such weapons. JFCs implement defensive nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) measures and plan for effective air and theater missile defense with different systems. For more information, see Joint Pub 3-11, "Joint Doctrine for Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC) Defense."

d. Multinational operations become more complicated with the threat of employment of these weapons. An enemy may use WMD against other coalition members, especially those with no or little defense against these weapons, to disintegrate the coalition.

e. Intelligence systems and planners advise JFCs of an opponentþs capability to employ WMD and under what conditions that opponent is most likely to do so. This advice includes an assessment of the enemyþs willingness and intent to employ these weapons. It is important to ensure that friendly force dispositions do not provide lucrative targets for enemy WMD.

f. When directed by the NCA, JFCs plan for the employment of theater nuclear weapons by US forces in a manner consistent with national policy and strategic guidance. The employment of such weapons signifies an escalation of the war and is an NCA decision. The Commander in Chief, US Strategic Commandþs capabilities to assist in the planning of all nuclear missions are available to support nuclear weapon employment.

g. If directed to plan for the use of theater nuclear weapons, JFCs typically have two escalating objectives:

• The first is to deter or prevent an enemy attack that employs WMD. To make opponents understand that friendly forces possess and will use such weapons, JFCs may simply communicate that to the enemy, using PSYOP or other means. Regardless, JFCs implement measures to increase readiness and preserve the option to respond, including the alert and forward positioning, if required, of appropriate systems. Attempts at prevention or denial may include targeting and attacking enemy WMD capability by conventional and special operations forces.

• If deterrence fails, JFCs respond appropriately, consistent with national policy and strategic guidance, to enemy aggression while seeking to control the intensity and scope of conflict and destruction. That response could be conventional in nature, but may include the employment of WMD. More information can be found in the Joint Pub 3-12 series.

6. Considerations for Termination and Postconflict Operations

See the information provided in Chapter I, "The Strategic Concept," and Chapter III, "Planning Joint Operations."